自我东方化例子(4篇)

篇一：自我东方化例子

　　TheInescapableWeirdLoopof＂Self-Orientalization＂作者：苏明[1]作者机构：[1]大连民族学院国际文化交流学院,辽宁大连116600出版物刊名：外语与外语教学页码：89-92页年卷期：2010年第5期主题词：“自我东方化”;镜像中国;国民性批判;镜像认同;自我反思摘要：近现代思想史上的国民性批判母题,致力于国民劣根性的揭露与自省,其实践意义是毋庸置疑的。但国民性批判以西方他者之镜为参照,对镜像认同本身虚幻性的忽视,也应引起我们的冷静剖析与反思。本文指出,从＂自我东方化＂的理论视角来全面剖析中国近现代国民性批判母题的生成及其深入展开,中国的＂自画像＂与域外＂他者像＂中的自我与他者形成了＂同犯＂的关系。对西方中国形象的镜像认同,导致国民性批判陷入了＂自我东方化＂的怪圈。如果对国民性批判本身缺乏理性的自省,对于镜像认同的虚幻本质视而不见,我们就永远无法走出＂自我东方化＂的怪圈。

篇二：自我东方化例子

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　　I106密

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　　论张爱玲自译作品的自我东方化倾向

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　　陈会琴

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　　舒奇志

　　教授

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　　外国语学院

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　　科

　　专

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　　英语语言文学

　　研

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　　文化研究与翻译

　　二零一一年六月六日

　　Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translatedWorks

　　Candidate

　　ChenHuiqin

　　Supervisor

　　Prof.ShuQizhi

　　College

　　CollegeofForeignLanguages

　　Program

　　EnglishLanguageandLiterature

　　Specialization

　　CulturalStudiesandTranslation

　　Degree

　　MasterofArts

　　University

　　XiangtanUniversity

　　Date

　　June6,2011湘潭大学

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　　DescriptiveChineseAbstract

　　摘

　　要

　　张爱玲是中国现代史上的一位传奇人物，她不仅创作了大量文学作品，也翻译了不少著作。国内外许多专家学者主要偏重于对张爱玲文学成就的研究，而对其译者身份和译作的研究直到近几年才引起关注。到目前为止，有关这方面的研究成果多局限于对她翻译成就的概括性介绍，或只是从杂合、女性主义、接受美学和意识形态等视角去分析其翻译文本，对于张爱玲作为译者独特的文化身份及其翻译的后殖民语境关注不够，从而忽视了张爱玲自译的自我东方化倾向。

　　在后殖民理论中，自我东方化是指一些东方文化精英分子往往认同西方文化的优越性和自身文化的卑劣性，甚至在他们的作品中通过简单化、概括化和夸张等手法来巩固西方对东方的刻板印象。自我东方化影响着译者的文化身份，同时也会在翻译中留下痕迹，这主要从翻译文本的选择和翻译方法的采用两方面体现出来。本文试图以后殖民翻译理论为指导，以张爱玲自译为研究对象，从翻译语境、文化身份、自译文本选择、自译目的以及方法的采用等方面论述其自我东方化倾向的原因及其表现。

　　本文的主要内容包括三章。第一章从翻译语境和文化身份方面探讨张爱玲自译的自我东方化倾向的原因，并指出这是中西方权力不平等、赞助者美国驻香港新闻处以及张爱玲本人的文化身份的自我东方化倾向影响的结果。第二章讨论张爱玲自译文本选择的自我东方化倾向。张爱玲的翻译文本主要表现了两个主题：性变态的中国女人与被“阉割”的中国男人；专制暴力的中国。她的自译文本再现了西方对中国神秘、落后、堕落和暴力的刻板印象以及西方人对中国政治体制和中国共产党持有的批判和鄙夷态度，其理由在于只有表现中国的东方“他者”形象的文本才能够引起西方读者的窥视和阅读欲望。第三章引用具体例证考察分析张爱玲自译目的的自我东方化倾向以及实现这一目的的翻译方法，认为为了凸显和渲染中国文化的滑稽、堕落和停滞，张爱玲多采用直译、增译和随意改写的翻译方法。与此同时，为了扫除西方读者的阅读障碍和提高文本的可读性，她又采用文化置换的翻译方法来传达原文的内容。

　　本文从翻译研究的后殖民视角捕捉到了张爱玲作为自译者的独特文化身份。通过考察其自译作品的自我东方化倾向，本文揭示出张爱玲通过自译文本的选择以及翻译方法的采用来迎合西方对中国的刻板印象与印证西方文化的普适性和优越性，也证明了在后殖民语境下翻译不是一种透明和平等的文化活动。

　　关键词：自译；自我东方化；文化身份；文本选择；翻译目的I

　　EnglishAbstract

　　Abstract

　　ZhangAilingwasalegendaryfigureinChinesemodernhistory.Shenotonlywrotenumerousworks,butalsotranslatedarelativelylargenumberofworks.Researchersandexpertsathomeandabroadmainlyfocusonherliteraryachievements.Onlyinrecentyearsdidacademiccirclesbegintopayattentiontoheridentityasatranslatorandhertranslatedworks.Uptillnow,researchesonhertranslationeithercenteronanintroductionofhertranslationaccomplishments,oranalyzehertranslatedworksfromtheconceptofhybridity,femaletranslationtheory,receptiontheoryortheperspectiveofideology.However,thepostcolonialcontextofherself-translationaswellasheruniqueculturalidentityasatranslatordoesnotreceiveitsdueattention,consequentlyself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworksisneglected.

　　Inpostcolonialtheory,self-orientalizationreferstotheidentificationwithsuperiorityoftheOccidentalcultureandinferiorityoftheOrientalculturebysomeOrientalélite,whoevenconfirmtheOccidentals’prototypeimageoftheOrientbysimplification,generalizationandexaggerationintheirworks.Self-orientalizationinfluencestranslators’culturalidentity,andleavestracesintranslation,whichcanbereflectedfromtheselectionofsourcetextsandtheadoptionoftranslationapproaches.Fromthepostcolonialperspectiveoftranslationstudies,thethesisaimstoexpoundcausesandmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sself-translatedworksthroughanalyzingthesocialcontext,herculturalidentity,self-translationtextselection,self-translationpurposesandapproaches.

　　Themainbodyofthethesisisdividedintothreeparts.PartOneprobesintocauseswhichcontribute

　　toself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sself-translatedworksintermsofthesocialcontextandculturalidentity,pointingoutthatitisresultedfromtheinfluencesofpowerimbalancebetweenChinaandtheWest,theUnitedStatesInformationAgency(thepatronage)andself-orientalizationinherculturalidentity.PartTwodiscussesZhangAiling’sself-translationtextselection.Inherchoiceofthesourcetexts,ZhangAilingmainlyselectedtextsthatrepresentthepervertedChinesewomenand“castrated”Chinesemen,andtextsofadespoticChina.Herself-translatedtextsreflecttheWesterners’stereotypedimpressionsofamystic,backward,depravedandviolentChinaaswellastheirbiasedanddisdainfulattitudesII

　　EnglishAbstract

　　towardsChinesepoliticalsystemandChineseCommunistParty,becauseonlytheOriental“Other”

　　imageofChinacouldsatisfytheWesterners’

　　voyeuristicdesireandarousetheirinteresttoread.PartThreeexaminesself-orientalizationinherself-translationpurposesandadoptionoftranslationapproachesbyanalyzingtheconcreteexamples.Inordertorepresentandexaggeratethealienation,inferiorityandweirdnessofChineseculture,ZhangAilingadoptedliteraltranslation,additionandrewriting.Meanwhile,sheusedculturaltranspositiontoexpresstheoriginalcontentwiththepurposeofremovingcomprehensionobstaclestotheWesternreadersandincreasingreadability.

　　Fromthepostcolonialperspectiveoftranslationstudies,thethesiscapturesZhangAiling’suniqueculturalidentityasaself-translator.Andbyinvestigatingself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworks,thethesisrevealsthatZhangAilingconformedtotheWesterners’stereotypedimageofChinaandconfirmeduniversalityandsuperiorityoftheWesternculturethroughtheselectionofself-translationworksandtheadoptionoftranslationapproaches,andprovesthattranslationisnotatransparentandequalculturalundertakinginthepostcolonialcontext.

　　Keywords:self-translation;self-orientalization;culturalidentity;translationtextselection;translationpurposesIII

　　ContentsContentsDescriptiveChineseAbstract...........................................................................................I

　　EnglishAbstract

　　..................................................................................................................II

　　Introduction

　　...........................................................................................................................1Chapter1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasa

　　Translator

　　.....................................................................................................11.1TheSocialContextforZhangAiling’sSelf-orientalization......................11.1.1TheConstraintsofPowerImbalance.................................................111.1.2TheInfluenceofPatronage...............................................................131.2ManifestationsofSelf-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentity...151.2.1IdentificationwithInferiorityofChineseCultureandSuperiorityoftheWesternCulture..........................................................................16Chapter2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection.......................................................................................................222.1SelectionofTextsofPervertedChineseWomenand“Castrated”ChineseMen............................................................................................................232.2SelectionofTextsofAutocraticChina......................................................21.2.2ConstructionofChinaastheOriental“Other”inHerWorks...........1Chapter3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　..........................................................................................313.1FittingintheWesterners’PrototypeImageofChina................................323.1.1RepresentingaDepravedandPrimitiveChinabyLiteralTranslation.....32IV

　　Contents3.1.2MagnifyingtheNegativeAspectsofChineseCulturebyAddition......343.1.3RidiculingandMarginalizingChinesePeoplebyRewriting............43.2ConfirmingUniversalityoftheWesternCulturebyTransposition...........413.3CateringtotheWesterners’SenseofCulturalSuperioritybyDeletion....45Conclusion

　　...........................................................................................................................4Notes

　　......................................................................................................................................52WorksCited

　　........................................................................................................................53Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................5InformativeChineseAbstract

　　......................................................................................5RésuméandPublicationssinceEnteringtheProgram

　　.....................................62V

　　Introduction

　　IntroductionZhangAiling张爱玲

　　(1920-1995),aprominentandlegendaryfigureinChinesemodernliteraryhistory,gainedbothfameandwealthsoonafterthepublicationofherfirstcollectionofshortstoriesRomance(《传奇》),in1944.Asweknow,theperiodfrom1943to1945markedthemostimportantperiodforherliterarycreation,whenmostofherwellreceivedbookswereproduced.However,herfamewasinterruptedbyChinesepeople’striumphintheWarofResistanceagainstJapanesein1945.DuetoherapoliticalstanceintheWarofResistanceagainstJapaneseandhermarriagewithHuLancheng胡兰成,anotoriouspropagandistforWangpuppetgovernment,shehadtoleaveShanghaiforHongKongin1952.CommissionedbytheUnitedStatesInformationAgency(abbreviatedtoU.S.I.Ahereafter),shebegantotranslateAmericanliteratureintoChinese.Takeforexample,MarjorieK.Rawlings’

　　TheYearlingwastranslatedintoXiaolu(《小鹿》),ErnestHemingway’sTheOldManandtheSeaintoLaorenYuhai(《老人与海》),RalphWaldoEmerson’sThePortableEmersonintoTheSelectionofEmerson(《爱默森文选》),WilliamVanO’Connor’s“Introduction”

　　into“Xu”

　　(序),HenryDavidThoreau’s“MemoriesofWinter”into“DongtiandeHuiyi”(冬天的回忆),WashingtonIrving’s“TheLegendofSleepyHollow”into“HeadlessKnight”(无头骑士),TennesseeWilliams’TheGlassMenagerieintoLiuliji(《琉璃集》)andsoon.Shealsoself-translatedherEnglishnovelsintoChinese,includingtranslationof“StaleMates”into“WusiYishi”《五四遗事》,TheRice-SproutSongintoYangge(《秧歌》)andTheRougeoftheNorthintoEmbitteredWomen(《怨女》).InadditiontotheseEnglish-Chinesetranslationworks,shetranslatedherownChineseworksintoEnglish.Forexample,LoveinRedLand(《赤地之恋》)wastranslatedintoTheNakedEarth,“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”

　　(桂花蒸

　　阿小悲秋)into“Shame,Amah!”,“Jinsuoji”(金锁记)into“TheGoldenCangue”,“Deng”(等)into“LittleFingerUp”,etc..

　　AlthoughZhangAilingmadegreatcontributionstotranslation,onlyinrecentyearsdidscholarsgraduallyshowtheirinterestinhertranslation.Theresearchcanbegroupedintotwomaincategories.ThefirstcategorymakesanintroductionofZhangAilingasatranslatorandhertranslatedworks,andbelievesthatsheisanoutstandingtranslator.Representative1IntroductionresearchcanbefoundinTranslationandContextuality(《翻译与脉络》)byShanDexing单德兴

　　(2007),“HarmonizationofMultifacetedFactors:aResearchonTranslationWorksofZhangAiling”byYangXue杨雪

　　(2007),and“AStudyonZhangAilingasaTranslator”byMaRuofei马若飞

　　(2007).ShanDexingusesachapterentitled“EileenChangasaChineseTranslatorofAmericanLiterature”todiscussherChineseversionsofAmericanliteratureandpointsoutthatshemadesomemistakesinhertranslationsuchasmistranslation,omissionandaddition.Inaddition,heelaboratesthatZhangAiling’stranslationwassubjecttotheColdWarmentality.Healsocontributestothestudyofhertranslationbyaddingtwoinformativelists,namelythelistofZhangAiling’sEnglish-ChinesetranslationworksandthelistofZhangAiling’sChinese-Englishtranslationworks.Incontrast,YangXue,throughqualitativeandquantitativeanalysis,holdstheviewthatharmonizationofmultifacetedfactorsisZhangAiling’stranslation

　　principle.MaRuofeielaboratesonZhangAiling’stranslationaltalentsandpractice,comparesherwithVladimirNabokovintermsofself-translation,andanalyzeshowideology,powerdiscourse,andpatronageexertedinfluencesonhertranslation.ThesecondcategoryisresearchonZhangAiling’stranslatedworksfromdifferentangles.Forexample,ChenJirong陈吉荣

　　(2007)studiestranslationcharacteristicsof“TheGoldenCangue”

　　inthelightofontology,expoundingthatZhangAilingadoptedthetranslationstrategyofforeignizationfromtheangleofChineseculture,attachedgreatimportancetothesourceworks,andshoweddistinctlyherfemalegenderstandpoint.OtherscholarslikeTangRen唐韧

　　(2008)andRuanGuanghong阮广红

　　(2009)carryoutresearchinto“TheGoldenCangue”,statingthatZhangAilingtookintoconsiderationreaders’horizonofexpectation,andadheredtothereader-focusedprinciple.Inaddition,somethesesapplyfemaletranslationtheory,hybridity,translator’ssubjectivity,transitionalintertextualityandideologytoZhangAiling’stranslationstudy.①

　　TakeDengLijuan’s邓丽娟

　　(2007)“AStudyontheInterventionistFeministStrategiesinEileenChang’sTranslations”

　　forexample,thethesisanalyzeshowZhangAilingusedinterventionistfeministstrategiessuchas“hi-jacking”,prefacingandsupplementingtomanifestherfeministthought.ItcanbeseenthatstudiesofZhangAiling’stranslationeithercenteronextra-textualanalysisfromamacroscopicview,orfocusoninner-textualanalysisfromamicroscopicview.However,thepostcolonialcontextofherself-translationaswellasheruniquecultural2Introductionidentityasatranslatordoesnotreceiveitsdueattention;consequentlyself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworksisneglected.WangXiaoying王晓莺

　　(2009)istheonlyexception.ShebrieflyintroducesthreestagesofZhangAiling’sChinese-Englishself-translation,appliespostcolonialismtoanalyzehertranslation,andfindsoutthathertranslationwasinfluencedbyOrientalismandheridentityasafemaletranslator.Nowadaysthereisagrowinginterestinpostcolonialliteratureandcriticism.AccordingtoDouglasRobinson,postcolonialismrefersto“astateofcultureorofculturestudiesarisingoutoftheexperienceofcolonialismanditsaftermath;concernedwithproblemsofgroupidentityasreflectedinlanguage,culture,law,education,politics,etc.;favorablydisposedtodiversityofallkinds,andsuspiciousofsimplisticsolutionstocomplexproblemsbasedonpurification”(121).PostcolonialismmainlydealswithpowerdifferentialsbetweentheEastandtheWestaswellasracialism,culturalidentityandhegemony.Whenitisappliedtotranslationstudies,itisthepostcolonialperspective.Postcolonialtranslationtheoriesconcernwith“theasymmetricalrelationsofpower”

　　intranslation,andexploretherelationoftranslationwithculturalidentity,Orientalism,ideologyandpoliticalstruggle(Niranjana2).Therefore,muchimportancehasbeenattachedtotheexteriorconstraintsontranslation.Becauseofpowerdisparitybetweenahegemoniccultureandadominatedculture,thereneverexistsequaldialoguesbetweendifferentcultures,whichnegatesequivalenceandaccuracyintranslation.

　　PostcolonialtranslationtheoriesoriginatefrompostcolonialismwithEdwardW.Saidasapioneercritic.InhisrepresentativeworkOrientalism,whatisunderdiscussionisnotanobjectiveandtrueOrient,butanOrientimaginedandconstructedbytheOccidentals’prejudiceandstereotypes.Ontheonehand,theOrient“hadbeensinceantiquityaplaceofromance,exoticbeings,hauntingmemoriesandlandscapes,remarkableexperiences”(1);ontheotherhand,theOrientisfeminine,coward,disgraceful,backward,passive,abnormal,emotional,pagan,poor,evil,uglyandprimitive,contrastedwiththeOccidentwhichismasculine,brave,noble,advanced,active,normal,reasonable,Christian,rich,good,beautifulandcivilized.ItcanbeseenthattheOrientplaysaroleoftheopposite“Other”oftheOccident,anindicationofdiscourseviolenceofadominantcultureagainstaminoritycultureandareflectionoftheOccidentalcountries’tremendouspower.Therefore,therelationship3IntroductionbetweentheWestandtheEastisthatofobserversandtheobserved,enlightenersandtheenlightened,dominatorsandthedominated.TheWesternersgetmuchjoyfromwatchingthemysteriousandexoticEast.Meanwhile,theymaintainasenseofculturalsuperiority,claimingthattheycansavetheEastfrombackwardness,darkness,despotismanddifficulty.Inthisway,theyrationalizetheirculturalaggression.Inessence,Orientalismisamirrorimageofculturalhegemonyofimperialism,areflectionofpowerdifferentials,andameansofconceptualizingtheworldbytheWesterners,whichsegregatestheworldintooursandothers,placingtheWesternworldinadominantpositionandmakingWesternstandardruletheworld.

　　OrientalismnotonlyexertsinfluencesontheWesterners’perceptionoftheEast,butalsoaffectstheEasterners’self-representation.WecannotjustreprehendtheWesterners,becauseintellectualsintheEastalsopartakeinproducingthedomestic“Other”,justasSaidpointsout“themodernOrient,inshort,participatesinitsownOrientalizing”(325).ItcanbeseenthatOrientalismisnotjusttheOccidentals’collectiveimaginationandproduction,butalsotheconsequenceofthecomplicityoftheOrientals.However,Saidjusttouchesupontheissuewithoutfurtherexploration.ArifDirlik,whomakesupthisdeficiency,proposestheissueofOrientalismoftheOrientalsorself-orientalizationinhispaperentitled“ChineseHistoryandtheQuestionofOrientalism”.Hestates:

　　WhiletheOccident/Orientdistinction,andOrientalismasconceptandpractice,areofEuropeanorigin,andthetermOrientalismhasbeenusedalmostexclusivelytodescribetheattitudesofEuropeanstowardAsiansocieties,IwouldliketosuggestherethattheusageneedstobeextendedtoAsianviewsofAsia,toaccountfortendenciestoself-orientalizationwhichwouldbecomeanintegralpartofthehistoryofOrientalism.(102)Intheworldculturalconfiguration,theWesternpowersestablishworldordersystembyplacingtheirownvaluesystematthecenterplaceonthebasisoftheireconomic,political,militaryandculturalstrength.Therefore,theWesterncountriesbecometheproducersandrulersofpowerdiscourse,representingtheEasterncountriesasprimitiveandbackward.Meanwhile,theEasterncountriesareforcedtoaccepttheworldpolitical,economicand4IntroductionculturalorderruledbytheWesternpowersandbecomepassiveobjectsofOrientalismimpact.TheresponseisthattheAsiansanalyzetheirself-imageintheculturalconfigurationestablishedbytheWesterncountries.TheOrientals,especiallytheOrientalélitewhohaveEasternbloodandknowledgebackgroundbutliveintheWesterncountries,accepttheirimagesconstructedbytheWesternpowersconsciouslyorunconsciously,evenconfirmandperpetuatethemintheirworks.InordertopandertotheWesterners’preconceivedimagesoftheEasterners,theyrepresenttheOrientalculturebyovergeneralization,oversimplification,exaggerationanddistortion.Admittedly,self-orientalizationrationalizesOrientalism.

　　ZhouNing周宁,ascholarofChineseimagestudy,hasmadeasystematicstudyandclassificationofself-orientalization.Hearguesthatself-orientalizationincludesthreelayers:firstly,itmeanstheOrientals’identificationwiththeOccident/OrientbinaryoppositionviewandEuropeancentrism,theOccidentals’thoughtstoviewtheworldintermsofbinaryopposition,theOccidentals’superioritybecausetheyareadvanced,civilizedandhumane,andtheirowninferioritybecausetheybelievethattheyare“Others”inculturalhegemony;secondly,intheworldordersystemruledbytheOccidentalcountries,theOrientalsbegintoconductself-criticismandculturaltransformation,andmakeeffortsto“De-orientalization”,whichincludestwoextremetendencies:oneistototallynegatetheirowntraditionandpreachwholesaleWesternization,theotheristobringtheEasterntraditionintoplayinWesternculturalhegemony,bothofwhichincluderesistantfactorsandidentificationfactors;thirdly,“De-orientalization”notonlyarchitectstherelationshipbetweentheOrientandtheOccident,butalsotherelationshipamongtheOrientalcountries,withtheprocessincludingOrientalizingeachotheramongtheOrientalcountries(中国形象7).Fromthisanalysis,wecanconcludethattheEasterncountriescanonlyidentifythemselvesintheWesternpolitical,economicandculturalhegemony;underthispre-condition,whetherto“preachwholesaleWesternization”orto“givetheirtraditionintofullplay”,theylosetheircapabilitytoindependentlyrepresentandconstructthemselves.

　　Scholarsathomeandabroadbegintorelatetranslationwithself-orientalization.Self-orientalizedtranslatorsusuallyadheretotheWesternreaders’

　　standpoint,respecttheWesternculture,ignoretheuniquevalueoftheEasternculture,andfeelcontemptuousofotheraspectsoftheEasternculture.Toalargedegree,translators’culturalattitudestowards5Introductionthesourcelanguagecultureandthetargetlanguagecultureinfluencetranslation,whichcanbereflectedintheselectionoftranslationtextsandadoptionoftranslationapproaches.InordertoconformtotheOccidentalreaders’preoccupiednotionsoftheOrient,self-orientalizedtranslators“feedthesebiasedrepresentationsbyproducingeithertouristicliteratureoronethatamplifiestheOrientalcontradictionsasimaginedbytheOccident”

　　(Jacquemond155).Inotherwords,self-orientalizedtranslatorstendtotranslatethetextswhichmanifestdefectsintheOrientals’characters,magnifytheprimitiveness,backwardnessandmysteriousnessintheOrientalculture,anddowngradetheimageoftheOrienttobarbariansinconformitywiththeOccidentalreaders’

　　horizonofexpectationandtheirprototypeimageoftheOrient.Asforthetranslationapproaches,self-orientalizedtranslatorstendtofollowtheprincipleofoneof“scientificaccuracy”intheirtranslationtorepresenta“complicatedOrient”(Jacquemond149).Inotherwords,self-orientalizedtranslatorsadopttheapproachofliteraltranslationtomagnifytheheterogeneity,femininityandcorruptibilityintheOrientalculture,whichcanserveasafoilandcontrasttotheOccidentalculturalprestige.Self-orientalizedtranslatorsalsoadoptthetranslationapproachoftranspositiontocatertotheWesternreaders’

　　habitualwayofexpressionandvaluesystem,andhighlightuniversalityoftheWesternculture,whichresultsinobliterationoftheuniquevalueoftheOrientalculture.Moreover,self-orientalizedtranslatorsadoptothertranslationapproachessuchasdeletion,additionandrewritingtodemonizetheimageoftheOrient,andconfirmrationalityandvalidityoftheWesternculture.TakeWilliamJones,arenownedtranslator,forexample.HeshowedcontemptfortheIndiancultureinhistranslationwiththehelpofintroductionandfootnotes,whichchangedEuropean’sideasaboutIndiaandreinforcedtheWesternculturalprestige.

　　Fromthepostcolonialperspectiveoftranslationstudies,thethesisintendstofigureoutcausesandmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sself-translation.Whatwastheself-translationcontext?WhatwasZhangAiling’sculturalidentity?Whatwereself-translated?Howwereworkstranslated?Withthesequestionsinmindanduponcloseexamination,thethesisaimstoelaboratethatZhangAilingdisplayedself-orientalizationinherself-translationworksselectionandadoptionoftranslationapproaches,whichareconstrainedandconditionedbypowerdifferentials,thepatronageandself-orientalizationin6Introductionherculturalidentity.Self-translationisdefinedbyAutonPopovi?as“thetranslationofanoriginalworkintoanotherlanguagebytheauthorhimself”(19).Inotherwords,self-translationmeansthatanauthortranslateshisorherownworksintoanotherlanguage.However,somescholarsdoubtwhetherself-translationistranslation,becauseself-translationinvolvesalotofcreationandrewriting,whichchallengestheauthenticityofthesourcetext.SusanBassnettpointsoutthat“onesolutiontothedilemmaistodenytheexistenceofanyoriginaltext,andconsequentlytodenytheexistenceofatranslation,assuminginsteadthatwehavetwoversionsofthesametextthatsimplyhappentohavebeenwrittenbythesameauthorindifferentlanguages”

　　(“Translation”

　　30).Admittedly,self-translatorsmakesomeadjustmentsandalterationstothesourcetexts.Overall,self-translatorsassumetheroleofatranslatorinthetranslatingprocess.Therefore,thethesisdeemsself-translationtranslation.

　　Therearesomeself-translatorsinChineseliteraryhistory.Takeforexample,XiaoQian萧乾self-translatedLizi《栗子》intoChestnutsandLixiaJi《篱下集》intoUndertheFence;BianZhilin卞之琳self-translatedhispoemsintoEnglishwhichareincludedinModernChinesePoetry;BaiXianyong白先勇self-translatedTaibeiRen《台北人》

　　intoTaipeiPeople,YouyuanJingmeng《游园惊梦》intoWanderingintheGarden,WakingfromaDream,AnAccountofZhexian《谪仙记》intoLiTung:aChineseGirlinNewYork,etc..

　　ZhangAilingisaself-translator.Thethesisfocusesonherinfluentialself-translatedworks:TheNakedEarth,“Shame,Amah!”,“TheGoldenCangue”,TheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorth.ItmustbemadeclearthatalthoughTheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorthwereoriginallywritteninEnglishandthenself-translatedintoChinese,theEnglishversionsinevitablyinvolvetranslation.Inthefirstplace,thenarrativeofChinesestoriesinEnglishisboundtotranslateChineseculture-specificitemsforthereceivingaudience.Infact,ChineseAmericanliterature“undertakesamissionofculturaltranslation”,andexperiencesbothlanguageandculturaltransmissionfromChinatoAmerica(王光林,华裔作家148).Then,characters,plotsandscenesinhernovels,whichwereintendedtosimulatethereallifeinChina,couldalsobeconsideredtobetranslationofrealityintofabrication.ItisbeyonddoubtthattranslationisanessentialpartofpresentingChinesethoughtsandconceptsinEnglish.Besides,bothtranslationandwritingfromamarginalizedIntroductionculturetoahegemoniccultureisideologicallyloaded.Because“noteverythinginapost-colonialculturalmetatextcanbetransposedinaliteraryformat”,choicesmustbemadeinconsiderationof“theideologicalpressureandcensure-bothimplicitandexplicitpoliticalconstraint-thattheyaresubjecttowithintheirnativeframework”

　　(Tymoczko23).Forthesereasons,ChinesecultureandtraditioninTheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorthcouldbeconsideredastranslationfromtheChinesemetatextsintoEnglish.SubsequentlyitwasZhangAilingwhoback-translatedthesetwoworksfromEnglishintoChinese.Becausethewriteristhesamepersonasthetranslator,wecouldassumethattheself-translatedChineseversionsarethesameastheChinesemetatexts.Forthesakeoftheconvenienceofanalysis,thethesistakestheChineseversionsasthesourcetextsandtheEnglishversionsasthetargettexts.AdescriptivemethodisconductedtodoresearchofZhangAiling’sself-translatedworkswiththepurposesofanalyzingthesocial-culturalandhistoricalcontextofherself-translation,explainingwhysheself-translatedthetextsandhowshetranslatedthemfromthepostcolonialperspective,andsupportingthemainideasofthethesisbyusingsomeconvincingexamplestoillustrateself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworks.Byexaminingthesocial-historicalandculturalcontextofZhangAiling’sself-translation,thethesispointsoutthatherself-translationwasconstrainedbypowerimbalanceandthepatronage.ByelaboratingheridentificationwithinferiorityofChinesecultureandsuperiorityoftheWesternculture,andherconstructionofChinaastheOriental“Other”

　　gazeduponbytheWesternersinherworks,thethesisrevealsthatshedemonstratedself-orientalizationinherculturalidentityasatranslator,whichexertedagreatinfluenceonherself-translationworksselectionandadoptionoftranslationapproaches.Influencedbyinequalityofpowerrelations,patronageandculturalidentity,thethesiselaboratesthatZhangAilingtendedtoself-translatethetextswhichrepresentanegativeimageofChinesepeopleandadespoticalChina.Finally,thethesisanalyzesmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinherself-translationpurposesandapproaches.Themaincontentsareasfollows:Introductionpartgivesageneralintroductiontotheresearch,includingliteraturereview,theoreticalframework,researchquestions,objectivesandsignificanceoftheresearch.ChapterOneconcernstherelationshipbetweenZhangAilingIntroductionandself-orientalizationintermsofsocial-culturalandhistoricalfactors,familybackgroundandlifeexperiences,andexplorestheconnectionbetweenself-orientalizationandherself-translation.ChapterTwodiscussesherself-translationtextselectioninfluencedbyself-orientalization.ChapterThreeanalyzesmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworkswithexplorationintoself-translationpurposesandapproaches.Inconclusion,itdealswiththecontributionofthethesis,limitationsofthepresentstudy,andrecommendationsforfurtherresearch.

　　Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.1Chapter1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　Translationresultsfromaseriesofchoices,suchaswhatshouldbetranslated,forwhomworksshouldbetranslated,howworksshouldbetranslatedandsoon.However,translatorscannotmaketheirjudgmentsneutrallyandtheirchoicesindependently,becausetheyare“constrainedinmanyways:bytheirownideology;bytheirfeelingsofsuperiorityorinferioritytowardsthelanguageinwhichtheyarewritingthetextbeingtranslated;bytheprevailingpoeticalrulesatthattime;bytheverylanguageinwhichthetextstheyaretranslatingiswritten;bywhatthedominantinstitutionsandideologyexpectofthem”

　　(álvarezandVidal6).Wemustbealerttothecircumstancesunderwhichchoicesaremade,whichcanbothbroadenthescopeofthetranslationstudiesanddeepenthecomprehensionoffactorsinvolvedintranslation.Thethesisanalysesthesocialcontextwhichcontributestoself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sculturalidentityasatranslator,followedbyelaborationofmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinherculturalidentity.1.1TheSocialContextforZhangAiling’sSelf-orientalization

　　Self-orientalizationmeanstheOrientals’attitudestowardstheirnativecountries.TheOrientalshereespeciallyrefertopeoplewhoarebornintheEastbutliveintheWest.ZhangAilingwasborninShanghaianddwelledinAmericafor40years.AssimilatingknowledgefromboththeEasternandtheWesterncultures,sheconstructedherownuniqueculturalidentity.Theuniqueculturalidentityenabledhertowinanadvantageofacquaintancewiththetwocultures.Therefore,shecouldnotonlytransmitChineseculturetoAmerica,butalsocarryoverAmericanculturetoChina.However,becauseofpowerimbalancebetweenChinaandtheWest,shelostdiscourselibertyandmanifestedself-orientalizationinherEnglishcreationandself-translation.Inaddition,theinfluenceofpatronageistheotherexteriorcausewhichmadeherconformtothemainstreamideologyinAmericaandtheWesterners’

　　aestheticappeal.

　　Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.11.1.1TheConstraintsofPowerImbalance

　　AccordingtoSusanBassnettandHarishTrivedi,translationisnotaninnocent,transparentactivitybutishighlychargedwithsignificanceateverystage;itrarely,ifever,involvesarelationshipofequalitybetweentexts,authorsorsystems”(2).Inotherwords,translatorsencounterpowerimbalanceorpowerdifferentialsbetweenadominantcultureandamarginalizedculture.Translationbecomesabattlefieldthattheparticipantsfightforpowerdiscourse.Inthepostcolonialcontext,translationisaproductofunequaldialoguesbetweenahegemoniclanguagecultureandadominatedlanguageculture,andatoolforperpetuationofculturalinfiltrationandrationalizationofculturalinvasion.Weshouldshowconcerntopowermanipulationhiddenintranslationbetweentwodifferentcultures,realizethattherehasneverexistedgenuinelyequalcommunicationbetweentwodifferentcultures.ZhangAilingwasbornon30September1920,ayearafterthewell-knownMayFourthMovement.Intheearlytwentiethcentury,China,afeeblesemi-colony,wasinanunfavorablepositioninthepoliticalandeconomicconfrontationwiththeWest.IntheWesterners’view,Chinesepeoplewere“unethical”,“depraved”and“undesirable”(周宁,西方看中国646).InthefaceoftheWesterners’negationandcontempt,Chinesepeoplelosttheirconfidenceinthemselvesandwereincapableofrepresentingthemselves.Toacertaindegree,therecentandmodernChinesehistoryishistoryofbloodandtears,andhistoryofhumiliation.TheWesternpowerslaunchedmilitaryinvasionuponChinainsuccession.Basedontheiradvancedweaponandmassiveeconomicandmilitarypower,thesecountriesencroachedonChineseterritory,interferedinChineseinternalaffairsandsuppressedChinesepeople.InordertocompletelysuppressChinesepeople,theWesternpowersmanipulatednotonlyChinesegovernmentbutalsoChineseforeignpolicy.TheyturnedChinesepeopleinpowerintotheirpuppets.Inadditiontomilitaryandpoliticalaggression,theWesternpowerscontrolledChinesepeoplethrougheconomicplunder.TheyexploitedunfairtreatieswhichweresignedwithQingGovernmenttodumpmerchandiseandplunderresources.Meanwhile,theWesternpowersadoptedthepolicyofculturalinfiltrationintoChinawiththepurposesofpropagatingtheWesternvalueandbeliefsystems,manipulatingChinesepeople’sminds,anddestroyingChinesenationalself-respectandself-confidence.

　　TheworstistheJapaneseAggressiveWaragainstChina.In1937JapaninvadedChina11Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.1infullscale.ThenGermanyandSlovakiainvadedPolandandsubsequentlyFrancedeclaredwaronGermany,whichmarkedthebeginningoftheSecondWorldWar.InDecember1941,JapanattackedAmericaonPearlHarbor.Therefore,Americatookpartinthewarimmediately.ThewarendedwiththedefeatofJapanandGermany.

　　TheSecondWorldWarchangedthesocial,politicalandeconomicordersystem.Afterthewar,theUnitedStatesacquiredimmensepolitical,military,economicandculturalpower,andbecameoneofthemostpowerfulcountriesintheworld.TheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionbecamerivals.Theydifferedgreatlyinissuessuchastheconfigurationoftheworld,humanrights,philosophyandperceptions,whichledtotheColdWar.TheColdWarwasaperiodofconflictandtensionbetweentheWesternpowersandtheCommunistWorld.Theywereactuallyatwar,althoughtherewasnodirectmilitaryfightingbetweenthesetwocountries.ThegeopoliticaltensionbetweentheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionwasmanifestedintechnologicalcompetition,spacerace,rivalryatsportsevents,espionageandpropaganda.AmericafearedthattheemergencyoftheCommunistWorldwouldinfiltrateintoAmericanculture.In1947theAmericanpresidentHarryS.TrumanwasadvisedtotakemeasurestocountertheSovietUnion’spolitical-military-ideologicalinfluenceupontheWesternpowers.Therefore,theTrumanAdministrationenunciatedtheanti-communistdoctrine,namelythepolicyofcontainment,toblocktheexpansionofCommunism.

　　ChinagotinvolvedintheColdWarandwasonthesideoftheSovietUnion.ShockedbytheChineseCommunistcontrolofMainlandChina,theAmericangovernmentexpandedtheanti-communismpolicyintoChina.Inordertoensuresecurity,Americaspreadbeliefs,valuesystem,attitudes,perceptionsandtheColdWardoctrinestoChina.ItcanbeseenthatthemainstreamideologyinAmericaintheColdWarperiodwasanti-communismandadvocacyofAmericanphilosophyandconventions.

　　Itisworthmentioningthatweneedtoclarifythemeaningofideologyinthethesisbecausethedefinitionsofitarevariousandambiguous.Theword“ideology”wascoinedbyCountDestuttdeTracyinthelate18th

　　centurytodefinethebasisofpublicopinionsandcommonsense.Ideologyisusuallytakeninasenselimitedtothepoliticalsphere,whichmeansasetofideasandprinciplesthatexplainhowthesocietyshouldwork.However,scholarsinthefieldoflanguage-relatedculturalandtranslationstudiesoftentendtoextend12Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.1theconceptofideologybeyondthepoliticalsphereanddefineitinaratherpoliticallyneutralizedsenseas“thatgrillworkofform,conventionandbeliefwhichordersouractions”

　　(Lefevere16).Inotherwords,ideologyisnotonlyasystemofvaluesandideaswhichlaythefoundationsofpoliticsandeconomy,butalsoasetofopinionsandassumptionswhicharesharedbyaspecificcommunityandexercisegreatinfluencesonwordsanddeeds.Asforthemainstreamideology,itisasystematicsetofconventionsandnormswhichareheldbytherulingclassandenjoythedominantplace.Inthethesis,ideologyistakeninabroadsense,anditincludesthesocialthoughtandtheindividual’sconsciousness.

　　Constrainedbythemainstreamideology,translatorsusuallyacceptitandcatertoitintheirworks.Therefore,confinedbytheprevailingAmericanrepresentationsofChinesesocietyandculture,dominantAmericanaestheticappealandmainstreamideologicalvalues,ZhangAilingselectivelytranslatedherChineseworksintoEnglish,whichincludesTheNakedEarth,“Shame,Amah!”,“TheGoldenCangue”,andwroteTheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorthinEnglish.ConditionedbyinequalityofrelationsbetweenChinaandAmerica,herEnglishcreationandself-translationstressesthestagnation,backwardness,decadenceanddespotisminChinesecultureandsocietyinaccordancewiththemainstreamideologyinAmerica,whichclearlyindicatesself-orientalizationinherculturalidentityasatranslator.1.1.2TheInfluenceofPatronage

　　IfpowerimbalancebetweenChinaandAmericaisoneofthetwoexteriorcauseswhichresultinself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sculturalidentityasatranslator,theinfluenceofpatronageistheotherone.InAndré

　　Lefevere’swords,patronageis“somethinglikethepowers(persons,institutions)thatcanfurtherorhinderthereading,writing,andrewritingofliterature”(15).Patronageusuallyassumestheformofapowerfulpersonorgroupssuchasuniversities,politicalparties,publishinghouses,themediaandgrantingagencies.Recentresearchsuggeststhatpatronageinfluencestheselectionoftranslationtext,thechoiceoftranslationstrategiesandthecanonizationofworks.Itsmightypoweroriginatesfromthreefactors,namelyitsideologicalconstraintwhichrestrainstheparametersofwhatischosentobetranslated,paymentofferedintheformofemolument,remunerationorroyalty,whichisamotivatorfortranslatorstotranslate,andhighsocialstatusbestowedbyitsapprovaland13Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.1recognition.Patronagecanfacilitateandhelpthepublicationandreceptionoftranslationifitisconsideredasvaluableandsatisfactory;theycanblockandprohibitthepublicationandreceptionoftranslationifitisdeemedasworthlessandunsatisfactory.Inordertogetworkspublishedandwellreceivedinthepublishingmarket,translatorshavetostaywithintheconstraintssetbythepatronage.Patronagestandsforthemainstreamideology,whichisadeterminantfactorintranslation.Patronagetakesinitiativetofurthertranslatingthetextswhichconformtoitsideology,andpreventstranslatingthetextswhichruncountertoitsideology.ZhangAilingwaspatronizedbyU.S.I.A,animportantorganizationestablishedbyAmericansinHongKongduringtheColdWarperiodtosabotagethesupportingresourcesofChineseCommunistPartyinMainlandChina,andwinsupportforandunderstandingofAmericanvalue,policyandbelief.SponsoredbytheAmericangovernment,U.S.I.AprovidedhighpaymentsforliteraturetalentswhohadagoodcommandofbothChineseandEnglishtoengageintranslatingandwriting,whichservedthepurposesofenticinganti-communismsentimentandactionaswellaspropagatingAmericanfreedomanddemocracy.

　　Atthattime,U.S.I.AneededZhangAilingtoengageintranslationandwriting,andsheneededthepaymenttosurvive,sosheprovidedserviceforU.S.I.A.ShetranslatedTheOldManandtheSea,“TheLegendofSleepyHollow”

　　andTheYearlingintoChinesesuccessively.However,shewasnotinterestedinAmericanliteratureworksselectedbyU.S.I.A.Inordertomakealiving,sheforcedherselftotranslate.Shesaidthat“translatingnovelswrittenbyWashingtonIrvingseemstospeaktoapersonwhomIdonotlike,resignedlyandinescapably”,andspokecandidlythat“eveniftheworksareaboutthedentist,Iwillsummonupcouragetotranslate”(陈子善35).Itissafeforustoconcludethatincomewasherdominantmotivefortranslating.

　　UnderthecontractwithU.S.I.A,ZhangAilingwasconstrainedbythemainstreamideologyandOrientalisminAmerica.Therefore,herself-translatedworksrepresentChinatobeinastateofbarbarity,despotismandbackwardness,whichservesasafoilforthegreatnessandadvancementoftheWesternculture.Consequently,hertranslationreinforcestheWesterners’prototypeimagesofChinaandrationalizesculturalinvasioninflicteduponChinabyAmerica,whichclearlysuggestshertendencytoself-orientalization.14Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.21.2ManifestationsofSelf-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentity

　　Thispartproceedstotheanalysisofmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sculturalidentity.Asforthedefinitionofculturalidentity,JosianeHamersandMichelBlancarguethat“theintegrationofthecomplexconfigurationthatiscultureintotheindividual’spersonalityconstituteshisculturalidentity”

　　(116).Theystressthattheindividual’sculturalidentityresultsfromsocialization,whichinvolvestheinteractionbetweentheindividualsandsociety.Itisadynamicmechanismwhichbeginsanddevelopsfromchildhood,influencedbymanyfactorssuchasgender,race,class,language,familialbackground,educationstatusandthesocial-historicalenvironment.Therefore,thecourseofconstructingculturalidentityisadynamicprocessofsocializationandacculturation.AssimilatingknowledgefromboththeEasternandtheWesterncultures,ZhangAilingconstructedheruniqueculturalidentity.Manyfactorscontributedtotheaccumulationofherculturalidentity,suchastheinfluencesshegotfromherparents,thelanguagessheacquired,theeducationandtrainingshereceived,thelifestyleshechosetoliveandhertwomarriages,thefirstmarriagewithHuLanchengandthesecondmarriagewithFerdinandReyher(anAmericanplaywright),etc.Whenweexpoundculturalidentity,weusuallyregarditasanidentitychoicemadebetweenahegemoniccultureandaminorityculture,whichleadstoenormousmentaltorture,personalexperiencesofanxietyandexpectation,agonyandjoy.Thiscanbeviewedashybridity,abuzzwordinthepostcolonialcontext,whichgenerallyreferstoablendoramixtureofdifferentnationalities,cultures,languages,religionsandraces.HomiK.Bhabhamakesadetailedanalysisof“hybridity”inhisrepresentativeworkTheLocationofCulture,andstatesthat“hybridityisaproblematicofcolonialrepresentationandindividuationthatreversestheeffectsofthecolonialistdisavowal,sothatother‘denied’knowledgeenteruponthedominantdiscourseandestrangethebasisofitsauthority–

　　itsrulesofrecognition”

　　(114).

　　ZhangAilingisahybridoftheEasternandtheWesterncultures.Becauseofherhybridculturalidentity,shehadadoublevision:ontheonehand,sheactedasanativeinformantof15Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2Chineseculture;ontheotherhand,sheobservedChinesepeoplebystandardsderivedfromtheWesterncountries,andconstructedChinatobebackward,impoverished,superstitious,stupid,dictatorial,irrational,lackofsanitationstandardsanddemocracy.Overall,theWesterncultureenjoyedahigherpositioninhermindthanChineseculture.SheappliedforAmericannationalityinNovember1959,whichimplieshereffortstointegrateintoAmericancultureandidentificationwiththeWesternculturalhegemony.

　　1.2.1IdentificationwithInferiorityofChineseCultureandSuperiorityoftheWesternCultureConfrontedwithChinesecultureandtheWesternculture,ZhangAilingfeltcontemptfortheformer;bycontrast,sheappreciatedandmadegreateffortstointegrateintothelatter.SheidentifiedwiththebinaryoppositionviewoftheOrientandtheOccident,andheldtheviewthattheOrientisfeminine,degradedandcoward,whichcontrastssharplywiththemasculine,advancedandbraveOccident.Thiscanbeseenfromherperceptions,attitudesandbeliefs.ZhangAilingwasanaristocrat.HergreatgrandfatherwasLeeHongzhang李鸿章,whowasaprestigiouspoliticianinQingDynasty,andhergrandfatherwasZhangPeilun张佩伦,whowasbothacelebrityinthelateyearsofQingDynastyandascholarinthefieldofChineseclassics.DespitethedeclineofQingDynasty,herfamilycouldstilllivealifeofabundanceonfamilyproperty.HerfatherZhangTingzhong

　　张廷众,concubineindulgentandopium-ridden,waswell-educatedinChineseclassics.Incompletecontradictiontoherfather,hermotherHuangSuqiong黄素琼,wasanemancipatedandWesternizedwoman,braveenoughtogoabroad,dooilpainting,goskiing,getdivorced,haveAmericanloversanddieabroadonherliberatedbounded-feet.Toacertaindegree,herfathersymbolizedChinesecultureandhermotherrepresentedtheWesternculture.ZhangAilinglookeddownuponwhatherfatherembodied,anugly,evil,immoralandcowardChinese;andappreciatedwhathermotherrepresented,abeautiful,benevolent,progressiveandcourageousWesterner.Inherreminiscenceofherchildhoodin

　　TheGuiltlessWordsofaChild(《童言无忌》),shedepreciatedeverythinginherfather’sconservativehome,“opium,theoldtutorwhotaughtmybrothertowritecompositionslike‘AnExpositionontheFirstHanEmperor’,16Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2chapter-stylednovels,astheywerelaggardanddust-laden”,②

　　bycontrast,“Ihadadeeploveforeverythinginmymother’shomeandfoundgreatconsolationinmodernfacilitieslikethegasstove”.③

　　BothZhangAiling’sfatherandmotherexercisedgreatinfluencesonhereducationintheirownways.Arrangedbyherfather,shereceivedtraditionalboudoireducation,learntclassicalChinesepoetryandprose.ImmersedintraditionalChineseculture,shehadaprofoundknowledgeofChinesecultureandgotmuchencouragementandinspirationfromherfather,assherecalledthat“myfatherwassoproud

　　ofmyliteraturetalentthathemotivatedmetolearntocomposepoems”.④

　　However,

　　hermotherdifferedgreatlyfromherfatherintheissueofhereducation.ZhangAiling’smotherinsistedthatZhangAilingshouldstudyEnglish,Western-stylepaintingandpiano,andwereeagertopassonheremancipatedvaluesandbeliefstoherdaughter,whichwasopposedbyZhangAiling’sfather,whodidnotfavorWesterneducationforhisdaughter.ZhangAiling’smothertookhertoanelementaryschoolwhenshewastenyearsoldandenabledhertoreceiveeducationinSt.Maria,agirls’CatholichighschoolsetupbyAmericanandBritishmissionaries,wheremorethanhalfofthecoursesweretaughtbyAmericanandBritishteachers.Duringthatperiod,shereceivedformaleducationinChineseandWesternliterature.MostbiographiessuggestthatZhangAilinglovedtoreadADreamofRedMansions

　　(《红楼梦》)andnovelswrittenbySomerthetMaugham.MaughamshowsspecialinterestindealingwiththerelationshipbetweentheWestandtheEastfromtheperspectiveofOrientalism,anddepictstheimageofafeminine,submissiveandbackwardChina.InfluencedbyMaugham,ZhangAilingalsodelineatesChinafromtheangleofOrientalism.

　　Aftergraduationfromhighschool,ZhangAilinghadseriousaspirationsforherself,“IwanttobemorefamousthanLinYütang,Idesiretowearthefanciestclothesintheworld,Iplantotravelallovertheworld,IhaveastrongwishtohaveahouseinShanghaiwhichcanbecalledmyownandliveanenjoyableandsimplelife”.⑤Obviously,LinYütangwasanidolwhomZhangAilingwantedtopursue.AsadisseminatorofChineseculturetotheWesternersandananti-communistwriterwholivedinAmericaformorethanthirtyyears,LinYütangenjoyedgreatpopularityandsuccessinAmericaforhisEnglishwritingandtranslationtargetedattheWesternreaders.Hissuccessconsistedinhisdelineationofthecomfortable1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2andleisuredlifelivedbyChinesepeople.InordertopandertotheWesterners’imaginationaboutChinesepeople,hedemonstratedself-orientalizationinhistranslation,consciouslyorunconsciously,whichisexpoundedbyWangShaoti王少娣

　　(2009).InspiredbyLinYütang’ssuccess,ZhangAilingnotonlygainedgreatconfidence,butalsogotmuchenlightenmentandrevelation.InZhangAiling’srecollection,hermotherreturnedfromabroadtodiscussheroverseasstudyplanafterhergraduationfromhighschool,whichenragedherfathertosuchadegreethatheimprisonedherforsixmonths.Afterwards,shemanagedtoescapefromherfather’sphysicalandintellectualconfinement,whichmeanshertotalrejectionoftheblindandbrutaloldChina,andherembraceofthebrightandniceNewWorld.Becauseofherexcellentacademicachievements,ZhangAilinggotadmissiontoLondonUniversity.However,duetotheSecondWorldWar,shehadtoreceivecolonialeducationatHongKongUniversity.Theperiodfrom1939to1941signifiedZhangAiling’sturntotheWest,becausethreeyearsinHongKongshemostlywroteandreadinEnglish.OwingtoJapaneseinvasionanddominationofHongKong,ZhangAilinghadtoabandonherstudyandreturntoShanghai.

　　InJulyof1953,ZhangAilingleftMainlandChinaforHongKongonthepleaofresuminginterruptedstudiesinHongKongUniversity.Luckilyenough,shefoundajobasatranslatorandwriterwithU.S.I.A,andreceivedhandsomeremunerationsforherworks.Shegot1000USdollarsinadvanceforthepublicationofTheRice-SproutSong.Afteritspublication,goodreviewsbyTimesWeekly,HeraldTribuneandNewYorkTimesfloodedin.ThesuccessenabledhertohaveastrongbeliefinhergoodcommandofEnglishandgreatlyinspiredhertopursueherdreamofbecomingageniusinAmerica.InOctoberof1955,shehurriedlysetsailforAmerica,andlivedtherewithouteverreturningtoShanghai.Uponherarrival,shefeltgreataffectionforNewYork,whichisrevealedfromherletterstoSongQi宋淇.ShebelievedthatNewYorkresembledShanghai,whiletheformerwasmellowerandthelatterwasflashier.

　　Fromtheaboveanalysis,itcanbeseenthatZhangAilingidentifiedwiththebinaryoppositionviewoftheOrientandtheOccident.TheOccidentalculturesenjoyedasuperiorpositiontotheOrientalculturesinhermind,whichwasdemonstratedinhereagernesstoget1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2integratedintotheWesterncultureandhertendencytodespiseChineseculture.However,itmustbemadeclearthattheself-orientalizationwasnotaculturalidentitychoicemadebyZhangAilingvoluntarily;itwasaconsciousorunconsciousculturalattitudedeterminedbysubjectivecauses,suchasfamilialbackground,educationbackground,creationactivitiesandlifeexperiences,andobjectivecauses,suchaspowerdifferentialsandthepatronage.

　　1.2.2ConstructionofChinaastheOriental“Other”inHerWorks

　　ZhangAilingnotonlyidentifiedwithinferiorityofChinesecultureandsuperiorityoftheWesternculture,butalsoconstructedChinaastheOriental“Other”

　　gazeduponbytheWesternersinherworkstoridiculeChina.“Gaze”,anotherkeywordinthepostcolonialstudies,originallymeanslookinglongandattentively,however,inthepostcolonialcontextitreferstoadominantcultureoverlookingaminoritycultureinasuperiorposition.AccordingtoSaid,theOccidentgetsmuch“bizarrejouissance”

　　fromgazingupontheOrientinacommandingposition(103).SotherelationshipbetweentheOccidentandtheOrientis“gaze”and“beinggazed”.Withprejudicedviews,theWesternerswatchtheEasttoseekfornoveltyandoddity,andproducearemotelyexotic“Other”

　　inaccordancewiththeirimaginationandexpectation.InordertogetintegratedintothemainstreamdiscourseinAmerica,ZhangAilingtriedherbesttogetridoftheshackleofherChineseidentityandChineseculture,andadoptedastandpointoftheWesternersintermsofthoughtpatternsandliteraturecreation,consciouslyorunconsciously.SheobservedChinesepeople,examinedChineseculture,andrepresentedamysterious,abnormalandprimitiveimageofChinagazeduponbytheWesternersinherworkstosatisfytheWesterners’voyeuristicdesire.

　　ZhangAilingfounditamusingtojudgeChinabyWesternstandards,justassheoncementionedthat“itisinterestingtolookatChinainthesamewayforeignerswatchBeijingOpera[...].Jumbled,irritating,mysteriousandamusing”.⑥

　　FromtheperspectiveoftheWesterners,sheviewedChineseinasuperiorpositionandfoundgreatamusementingazinguponChinesepeople.EvenChinesechildren,thefuturemastersofChina,becamedollstotoywith:ThereisaforeigngirlwhohasbeeninChinafortwoyears.[...]However,shehasspecialappreciationofChinesechildren,saying“howbeautifultheyare,especiallyinwinter,whentheyareincotton-paddedjackets,cotton-padded1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2trousers,cotton-paddedrobesandcotton-paddedoveralls.Theyareshortandfat,toddlingandstaggering.TheOrientalsarebornwithgoodeyes,whichespeciallyshowthemagicoftheupwardslantingeyesintheirtinyyellowfaces.ThisreallymakesmecherishthehopetotakeonebacktoEurope.⑦

　　AstotheWesterners,theirhegemonyisnotonlyculturallydetermined,butalsoraciallydetermined.Theydividepeopleintothreemarkedcategories,namelythewhite,theyellowandtheblack.Thewhitearebynaturesuperiortotheyellowandtheblack,whoaredowngradedtosavageanddegenerate.“Inaninterestingshiftofmetaphorstheblackandyellowraceswerethecottonandwoolinthefabricofcivilizationrequiringtheadmixtureofthesilkofthewhiteracetomakethemsupple”

　　(Jones79),whichexplainswhyChinesechildrenaredescribedtobeincotton-paddedjackets,cotton-paddedtrousers,cotton-paddedrobes,andcotton-paddedoverallsintheabovequotation.Moreover,theWesternersareoftenamusedbytheuniformityoffacialfeaturesofChinesepeople:blackhair,trianglefaces,flatnoses,smallandupwardslantingeyes,yellowskin,wideandbonyforeheads,whichexplainswhytheforeigngirlintheabovequotationexpectstotakeaChinesechildbacktoEurope.TheuniformityoffacialfeaturesofChinesechildrenindicatesthattheWesternersoversimplifyandmarginalizetheimagesofChinese.InadditiontoridiculeChinesechildren,ZhangAilingnarratedChinesewomen

　　astheOriental“Other”gazeduponbytheOccidentalsorevenfakeforeigners.T’ungShih-fang童世舫in“TheGoldenCangue”

　　wasanorthernerwhohadreturnedfromGermany.HewasarrangedtohaveablinddatewithCh’ang-an长安.Shewasdressedup“tolooklikethecelestialmaidenscatteringflowers”

　　inthe“foreigner”

　　T’ungShih-fang’spresence(Chang,“TheGoldenCangue”178).Shebecamespeechless,believedthatshecametobewatched,andfeltthat“herbodywasaltogethersuperfluousandcouldaswellbeshrunkinsizeandputawayifsheknewhowtodothis”

　　(Chang,“TheGoldenCangue”

　　180).Becauseofhermother’sopposition,shebrokeoffamarriagecontractwithhim.Afterthattheymadefriendswitheachother,andexchangedthoughts.Ch’ang-an’sna?vetéamusedT’ungShih-fang,whofoundherfunny.WatchedandjudgedbyT’ungShih-fang,Ch’ang-anbecameanornamenttoalistofancient,amusingandmysteriousChineseobjects.

　　Besides,shedescribedeffeminateChinesemenfromtheperspectiveoftheWesterners2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2toserveasafoiltothegreatnessoftheWesterners.Chinesemenwerepresentedasmentallyandphysicallydisabled,whichaccordedwiththeWesterners’preconceivedthoughtsofChinesemaleimage:weakandimpotent,takingopiuminbedsengravedwithdragonsandphoenixes.Bycontrast,Westernmaleswereconstructedastheelegantandwell-educatedknights,attackingtheprimitiveOrientalcountries,plunderingtheOrientalwealthandsubjugatingtheOrientalwomen.

　　OldrelicsintraditionalChineseculturewerealsointentionallypresentedtowintheWesterners’favorandsatisfytheirimaginationaboutanexoticOrient.Inthefiction“Shame,Amah!”,ZhangAilingnarratedthat“therewerePekingoperamasksonthewallandaframednudepaintingwhichhadbeenawhiskeyadvertisement,Pekingrugs,awastebasketmadeoutofalantern,anestofcarvedrosewoodtables”(100).Theroom,whichwasdecoratedbytinyobjectsofOrientalflavor,becametheWesterners’imaginaryChina.Intheireyes,Chinawasanenchantingplacewithmysteryandexoticflavor,whicharousedtheirdesiretoconquerandseize.

　　ItcanbeseenthatZhangAilingdemonstratedself-orientalizationinherculturalidentityintermsofheridentificationwiththebinaryoppositionviewoftheworldandherconstructionofChinaastheOriental“Other”gazeduponbytheWesterners.Culturalidentitymouldsthethoughtsandactions,becauseoneperceivesthingsfromacertainperspectiveandbehavesaccordingtoacertainsystemofideasandattitudes,whichareallstemmedfromculturalidentity.Translators’culturalidentityreflectshisorherculturalattitudetowardsthesourcelanguagecultureandthetargetlanguageculture,whichinfluenceshisorherselectionofsourcetextsandadoptionoftranslationapproaches,because“thereisanunspokentextinter-contextuallyhiddenintranslationdiscourse,thistexthasaninter-contextuallycompatiblerelationshipwithculturalidentifyandculturalattitude”.⑧

　　Therefore,self-orientalizationinculturalidentityinfluencedZhangAiling’sself-translationworksselectionandadoptionoftranslationapproaches.HerSelf-translatedworksconformtotheWesterners’prototypeimageofChinesepeople,distortandmagnifythebackwardness,filth,despotismandsuperstitioninChineseculture,andconfirmuniversalityandcorrectnessoftheWesterncultures.21Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelectionChapter2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelectionAccordingtoRobinson,“authorsinadominatedculturewhodreamofreachingalargeaudiencewilltendtowritefortranslationintoahegemoniclanguage,andthiswillrequiresomedegreeofcompliancewithstereotypes”(32).AsatranslatorfromChinawhocherishedthedreamofbeingreceivedbyalargegroupofreadersinAmerica,ZhangAilingtendedtowritefortranslationintoEnglish.Therefore,mostofthesourcetextsofherChinese-Englishtranslationwereherownworks.Asweallknow,ZhangAiling,whoexcelledinstylisticinventivenessandpsychologicalsophistication,wasanoriginalwriterinmodernChineseliteraryhistory.Sheproducedmanyworks.Wecannothelpraisingthequestionwhyshechosetoself-translateTheNakedEarth,“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”,“TheGoldenCangue”,TheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorthratherthanherotherworks.Toanswerthequestion,letusfirstlyintroduceherChineseworks.ZhangAiling’sworksshowdiversesubjectmatters.In1932shepublished“TheBull”

　　(牛)and“FarewelltotheConcubine”(霸王别姬),whichshowherfemaleconsciousnessandmoderninterpretation.HerothershortstoriesincludeRomances,whichisacollectionofsentimentalstoriesinfluencedbyMandarinDucksandButterfliesSchoolofpopularromance,“LingeringLove”(留情),whichdealswiththesubjectofmarriage,“YouthfulYears”(年轻的时候),whichisaboutloveaffairs,“Jasmine

　　Tea”(茉莉香片),whichconcernsaboutself-identity,“LoveinaFallenCity”(倾城之恋),whichnarrateswar-timeHongKong,“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”,whichtellsastoryaboutonedaylifeofaChinesefemaleservantinShanghai,“Blockade”(封锁),whichconcernswiththevanityofhumanheart,“AloeswoodAshes:theFirstBurning”(沉香屑第一炉香),whichexpressesasenseofemptinessanddespairandsoon.

　　ZhangAilingwrotenotonlyshortstoriesbutalsonovels.HernovelsincludeInterlockingRings(《连环套》),whichdescribesthephenomenonofcohabitation,SoMuchRegret(《多少恨》),whichisbasedonherloverelationshipwithHuLancheng,LittleAi(《小艾》),whichdelineatesamaidservant’soptimisticbeliefinCommunisttheorytoavoid22Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.1criticismfromtheLeftWingwriters,EighteenSpring(《十八春》),whichisabouttheseparationsandreunionsofthemaleprotagonistandthefemaleprotagonistovereighteenyears,TheNakedEarthandTheRice-SproutSong,whicharetwoanti-communistnovels,TheRougeoftheNorth,whichisastoryofapervertedChinesewoman,etc..

　　Amongtheseshortstoriesandnovels,ZhangAilingselectivelyself-translatedTheNakedEarth,“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”,“TheGoldenCangue”,TheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorth.ThemainstreamideologyinAmerica,culturalhegemony,theinfluenceofU.S.I.Aandself-orientalizationinherculturalidentitycontributetoherself-translationtextselection.Bycloseexaminationoftheself-translatedtexts,wefindthatshetendedtoselecttextsofpervertedChinesewomenand“castrated”Chinesemen,andtextsofautocraticChina.

　　2.1SelectionofTextsofPervertedChineseWomenand“Castrated”

　　ChineseMen

　　Translationtextselectionisnotneutralandfree;itisentangledwith“issuessuchaspower,ideology,institutionandmanipulation”(Lefevere39).Inordertomakesurethatthetranslatedversionscanbesuccessfullyreceivedbytheimpliedaudience,translatorstendtoselectthesourcetextswhichconformtoreligiousbelief,valuesystem,conventions,perceptions,morals,law,customs,habits,attitudesandassumptionsinthetargetlanguageculture,becauseiftranslatorsbiddefiancetothesecannonsinthetargetlanguageculture,thetranslatedversionswillberejectedbythepublishingmarketandtheimpliedaudience.Ifthesourcetextscanbasicallypandertothesecannonsinthetargetlanguageculture,meettheimpliedreaders’

　　aestheticdemands,andaccordwiththeirexpectationofandimaginationaboutthesourcelanguageculture,thenthetranslatedversionscanbewellreceivedandacceptedbythetargetreaders.

　　Thisthesisfocusesontranslationtextselection,especiallyself-translationtextselection,fromadominatedculturetoahegemonicculture,namelyfromtheEasttotheWest.TheEasthasalwaysbeeninexistenceasthe“Other”

　　oftheWest.TheWesterners’

　　preconceivednotionsandstereotypedimpressionsoftheEastaretheirculturalexpectationoftheEast.Therefore,sourcetextsintheEasternculture,whichareinconformitywiththeWesterners’

　　23Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.1stereotypedimpressionsofabackwardandexoticOrient,aremorelikelytogettranslatedintotheWesternculture.Researchesfindoutthatahegemonicculturetendstotranslateworksfromadominatedculture,whichare“perceivedasdifficultandonlyofinteresttospecialists,chosenfortheirconformitytothehegemonicstereotypes,andoftenwrittenspecificallywithaneyetoconformingtothosestereotypesandthusgettingtranslatedandreadinthehegemonicculture”(Robinson32).Inotherwords,theOrientisdeemedasalien,strange,mysticanddifficultbytheOccidentals.Sourcetexts,whichareselectedtobetranslatedfromadominatedculturetoahegemonicculture,usuallyfitintheWesterners’

　　preconceivednotionsofanduncannyimaginationabouttheEast,thussatisfytheircuriosityaboutanexoticanderoticEast.Asisknowntoall,Englishisalanguageofpower,whichisestablishedonthebasisofBritishandAmericaneconomic,political,militaryandculturalstrength.TheinternationalpowerstatusofEnglishmakespeoplesensethatsuccessinEnglish-speakingcountriesmeanssuccessinthewholeworld.Underthecircumstances,self-orientalizedauthorsusuallywritefortranslationintoEnglish,conformtotheprevailingstereotypes,andcatertoWesternnormsandexpectations.

　　Asatranslatorinexile,ZhangAilingdreamedofoccupyinganimportantpositioninAmericanpublishingindustry.InordertocommandareadysaleinAmericanmarket,shehadtoselectsourcetextsandmakeinterpretationsinaccordancewiththeWesterners’ideologies,specificallytheirstereotypedimpressionsofabackwardandexoticChina,becauseideologyis“aconstraintonthechoiceanddevelopmentofbothformandsubjectmatter”(Lefevere16).ZhangAilingchosetoself-translate“TheGoldenCangue”,becauseitdescribesdebauchedandlong-braidedChinesemenwhosmokeopium,takeconcubines,playmah-jongandkeeptheiroldwaysoflivingaswellaspervertedChinesewomenwhoaredrivencrazybytheirscrambleforsexandmoney.SheentertainedthehopethatthestorywouldfitintheWesterners’prevailingstereotypedimpressionsofChinesepeople.

　　“TheGoldenCangue”

　　tellsastoryaboutawomanfromasesameoilshop,whogetsmarriedtoablindanddeformedsonofaneminentfamily.Sheusuallytalksabouthersexualannoyances,whichrevealsheranxiousness,bitterness,tensionandsexualstarvation.Sheattemptstohavesexualrelationshipswithherhusband’syoungerbrotherChi-tse季泽,butinvain.Chi-tsepromotesactressandplaysaroundwithwomen,buthedoesnotriskuniversal24Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.1condemnationtoloveher.Heradulterousdesirefindsaventinpossessionofmoneyandherson.Consideringhersontobetheonlymaninherlife,sheindulgeshersonandignoresthefactthathegoesgambling.Inthefinalpartwhatisthemostrepellenttothereadersisthatthefemaleprotagonistisdeterminedtoliveamiserablelifeanddoesnotallowherchildrentohavejoyandhappiness.Shekeepshersonfromsleepingandcross-examinesabouthissexuallifewithhiswife.Worsestill,sheexploitseveryopportunitytovividlytellallthedetailsaboutherdaughter-in-law’ssecretstohumiliateherinpublic.Shemanipulatesherson’slifeandshouldbeblamedforherdaughter-in-law’sdeath.Alongsidethefemaleprotagonist’spsychologicalandmoraldegeneration,itiseasyforustoseethatZhangAilingconstructedanegativeimageofChinesewomen,malevolent,rancorous,villainousandembittered.

　　InadditiontosmeartheimageofChinesewomen,ZhangAilingsatirizedbad,absurdandcorruptqualitiesofChinesemen,andreversedthepatriarchalauthoritythroughmakingmalecharactersphysicallydeformedandspirituallyemasculated.In“TheGoldenCangue”,SecondMasterChiangsuffersfrom“softbone”andisparalyzed.Heaccompaniesthewholelifeofhiswifelikeashadow,lingeringoninasteadilyworseningcondition.Inreality,heisafather,ahusbandandason.Buttheyonlyexistinname.Hedefinitelyisnotamaninatraditionalsense.Itissafetoconcludethatheis“castrated”

　　physically.ThroughmakingSecondMasterChiangcorpse-like,ZhangAilingsatirizedthedistortedmalebody,anddeconstructedthemaleauthorityofthepatriarch.IfitissafetosaythatSecondMasterChiangcannotassumesocialrolesbecauseofhisdeformedbody,ThirdMasterChiangisphysicallywellandspirituallydisabled.Heisanimpotentconsumedbyopiumandwomen,doesnothingbutlivesonhisfamilyproperty.Henotonlytrieshisutmosttoobtainmoneyfromhismother,butalsoattemptstocheatthefemaleprotagonist’slovetogetmoney.Hislifevaluesandlifestylereflectthatheisobscene,depraved,useless,lackofheroismandmanhood.Ch’ang-bai长白,thesolesonofthefemaleprotagonist,inheritsdecadence,melancholy,weaknessandimpotencyfromhisfarthergenerations.Helacksenthusiasmandvigorforlife,sitsidleeveryday,yawnssluggishlyandsmokesopium.Bydeprivingaman’smanhood,ZhangAilingrepressedandbelittledthepatriarchalauthority.Inadditiontoordinarymalecharacters,otherauthoritativeandpowerfulmenwerealsofeminizedbytheauthor.NinthOldMaster,whorepresentsauthorityand25Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.1powerintheseniorpatriarch,wasjeeredathishomosexuality.Inbrief,Chinesemalesinthefictionwereeitherphysically“castrated”

　　ormentallydisabled,whichsubvertedthemaleauthority.ZhangAilingalsochosetoself-translate“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”

　　intoEnglish.Inthefiction,theChinesemanAhNée’shusbandwasrepresentedastimid,sexualimpotent,andlackofstrengthandmasculinespirit,whichwasinaccordancewiththeWesterners’preconceivedthoughtsofaweakanduselessChinesemaleimage.InsharpcontrasttothefeminizedChineseman,theforeignerMr.Schachtisapredator,whohassexualrelationshipswithallkindsofChinesewomenandcaststhemawaylikeapairofworn-outshoes,whichindicatestheWesternmales’intensesexualpotencyandmasculinity.ItissafetosaythatthisfictiondelineatesChinesemen“castrated”bytheOccidentalmalesandseductivelyenchantingChinesewomenwithsexualappeal.

　　ZhangAiling“castrated”

　　ChinesemalesbecausetheWesternerstendtofeminizeChinesemales.ThehistoricalrootofemasculatingChinesemencouldbetracedbacktotheinvasionandcolonizationofChinabyImperialistpowerswithstrongarmorandsharpweaponsinthe19thcentury.UnderthemanipulationofWesternhegemony,Chinesepeoplewereperceivedaseffeteandimpotent.Sincethelate19thcentury,Chinesepeople,especiallyfarmersincoastalareas,begantoemigratetoAmerica.Theywereilliterate,stucktooldcustomsandledalifeofisolationfromothersocialcommunities.Mostofthemwereindenturedlaborers,engaginginphysicalwork.ComparedwiththeOccidentalmales,Chinesemaleswereweakerinphysicalstrengthandendurancebecauseofadiscrepancyinconstitution.Otherswentintoserviceindustry,andtookupfeminizedjobssuchaskeepahousehold,docookinganddothelaundry.However,Chinesemaleswereabsentfromthedomainswhichdemonstratemalestrengthandpower.Therefore,theWesternersweredeemedtobemale,endowedwithcharacteristicssuchasreason,mighty,aggressivenessandnobility;onthecontrary,Chinesewereconstructedtobefemale,taggedbytemperamentssuchastenderness,weakness,primitivenessandpassiveness.BydeformationandemasculationofChinesemale’simage,ZhangAilingcouldenabletheWesternerstogetmuchsatisfaction,maintaintheirsenseofculturalsuperiority,andconsolidatethebeliefthattheyarethegreatsaviorwhocoulddominateandredeemChinafromdarknessandbarbarity.26Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.22.2SelectionofTextsofAutocraticChina

　　InAmericans’minds,autocraticChinameansthatChinesepeopleliveinhorror,andlosetheirfreedomaswellasdignityashumanbeingsundertheruleofChineseCommunistParty.ThefoundationofPeople’sRepublicofChinaleadstodisillusionofAmericandreamofattemptingtoreformChinabasedonanAmericanmodel,andtheemergenceofChinafillsAmericanswithangerandfrustration.AmericansbelievethatChineseCommunistPartyishypocriticalanddespotic,propagandizethealienationanddestructionofhumannatureofChinesepeopleunderthetyrannicalgovernance,andaredeterminedtorescueChinafromdespotismbyspreadingAmericanvaluesystemsanddemocracytoChina.Actually,infiltrationofAmericancultureintoChinaisculturalhegemony,whichmeanstheoverwhelmingdominationofWesternmainstreamideologythroughexportingWesternmodesofthinking,values,norms,beliefs,moralityandaestheticstandardstotheEasterncountriesinanon-violenceway,whichcanmaketheEasternpeopleunconsciouslyandimperceptiblyacceptculturalinvasion,thusrationalizeculturalmanipulation.CulturalhegemonyisbasedontheperceptionthatWesterncultureispowerful,superioranddominant,whiletheEasterncultureisweak,inferiorandperipheral.Therefore,theWesternersbelievethatWesternculturecaninfiltrateintoandwrestwiththeEasternculture.

　　AssumingthatWesternpoliticalsystemisdemocraticandadvanced,AmericanshaveunfairandprejudicedattitudestowardsChinesepoliticalsystem,whichisperceivedasautocraticandviolent.ConstrainedbythismainstreamideologyinAmerica,ZhangAilingslanderedChineseCommunistPartytorevealtheir“evil”

　　dominationinherworks.Itisworthmentioningthatherpersonalideologyalsocontributedtoherwritingandself-translatinganti-communistnovels.In1952sheleftShanghaiforHongKongwiththepurposeofresuminginterruptedstudies,butfailed.ShecouldnotfindapositioninHongKongsothatshebecamefinanciallyhelplessandhadtoworkforU.S.I.A.UnderthecommissionofU.S.I.A,shewroteandself-translatedtwoanti-communistnovels,namelyTheRice-SproutSongandTheNakedEarth.Asforanti-communist,shewasnotreluctant.Asadecliningaristocrat,shepersonallydreadedtheinfluenceofCommunism,whichcanbeseenfromZhang’sOutlook,“fromthethirtiesonward,Ifeltthepressurefromtheleftinwhatever2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.2Iread.AlthoughIfeltaninstinctivedislikeforit,andwasalwaysoutsidepopulartrends,Iknewthat,unlikeWesternCommunism,itsinfluencewouldnotbelimitedtothethirties”.⑨

　　ThecentralstoryofTheRice-SproutSongisaboutariotinavillagedevastatedbyfamine.Farmerslaboralltheyeararound,stilltheyareunabletofilltheirstomachsandonlyfeedonricegruel.SufferingfromexorbitanttaxesandleviesimposedbyChineseCommunistParty,Chinesepeasantshavenomeansoflivelihoodandfindlifeunbearableandimpossibleforthem.ZhangAilingdesignedanincidenttotriggerarebelagainstChineseCommunistParty,namelyeveryhouseholdisdemandedtocontribute“halfapigandfortycattiesofNewYearcakes”tothesoldiers’families(TheRice-SproutSong116).Uponcloseexamination,wefinditunreal.Thereareonlyafewsoldiers’familiesinavillage,ifeveryhouseholdcontributesasmuchashalfapig,itissurelymorethanenoughforthesoldiers’

　　familiestoeatandtheyevencanopenabutcher’sshop.Evidently,ZhangAilingmisrepresentedChineseCommunistParty.Accordingtohernarration,ChineseCommunistPartyisdestructiveandevil,whichcanbeseenfromthefollowingstatement,“onemomentthisarmycomes;onemomentthatarmycomes.Afterthearmycomethebandits.Andthistimeitisworsethananybandits.Youcan’tevenburyfourouncesofmilletundergroundandgetawaywithit.Yes,theyalwaysknow”(TheRice-SproutSong106).Thestoryalsoprobesintothecharacters’

　　psycheanddealswiththeinterpersonalrelationshipbetweenfarmersandtheChineseCommunistPartymembers.Thereisalackofunderstandingamongthem,whodesiretopryoneachother’saffairs.Everyoneisafraidofbeingwatchedbyothers,whichrepresentsasocietyinwhichnotonlypersonalprivacyisneverrespected;butwhereaslightmistake,ifdiscovered,mightleadtosufferingandpermanentruin.Toliveinsuchasocietyisaprecariousthing.Everyonehastobeverycautiousinhisorherdailyactivitiesandconversations.Nooneotherthanoneselfcanbetrusted.Inhernovel,mistrust,suspicionandgloatingoverothers’

　　sufferingbecomepsychologicalillnessesthatseemtohavebeeningrainedinthecontemporaryChinesenationalcharacter.TraditionalfolkspeechesandpoliticsareridiculedandsatirizedinTheRice-SproutSong.Whenthekanpu干部asksPlentyOwnChou周大有whyhechoosestomarryGoldFlower金花,herepliesthatbecauseshecanwork.GoldFlowergoesthroughthesame2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.2routine.FortheWesternreaders,itisridiculousbecausetheybelievethatmarriageshouldbebasedonaffectionatefeelingsinsteadofsomesuperficialthings,abilitytoworkforexample.Worsestill,Communistswhowanttogetmarriedshouldasktheorganizationforpermission.

　　Moreover,thestoryconsolidatestheWesterners’

　　prototypeimageoffilthyChinesepeople.Thestorybeginswiththedescriptionofthatchedprivies,“inthiscountrytownthefirstbuildinginsightwereastringofexactlyidenticalthatchedprivies,whichhadadesertedairdespitetheoccasionalwhiffoffaintodorinthewind”(TheRice-SproutSong1).Inthisstory,Chinesepeopledefinitelyhavenosenseofsanitation:theirclothesaregreasy;foodissmelly;packagesareoil-stained;livingenvironmentreleasesdisgustingodor.

　　InspiredbythesuccessofTheRice-SproutSong,ZhangAilingself-translatedLoveinRedLand(《赤地之恋》)intoTheNakedEarth.Itcanbeconsideredastravelwriting:firstly,themaleprotagonistLiuQuan刘荃experienceslandreforminanorthernvillage,whereinnocentfarmersaretorturedtodeath;andthenhemovestoShanghaitotakepartinThreeAntis,themovementagainstthethreeevilsofbureaucracy,wasteandcorruption;finally,hejoinsthearmytoResistUSAggressionandAidKorea.

　　ThestoryisalsocenteredontheloverelationshipbetweenLiuQuanandHuangJuan黄绢,whichendsupwithnogoodbecauseHuangJuanhastoliveillicitlywithShenKaifu申凯夫inexchangeforthesafetyofLiuQuan.Aseriesofeventsleadtothemaleprotagonist’sdisillusionmentanddisappointmentwithCommunistdoctrines.ByexposingthedarknessandevilinChineseCommunistParty,thestorywasintendedtocontaintheexpansionofCommunistsandpopularizeAmericandemocracyandcivilization.

　　Byfabricatingthestory,ZhangAilingexposedthatChineseCommunistleadersschemeagainsteachotherandconcoctedaserialsofvilecharacterssuchasZhangLi张励,ZhaoChu赵楚,CuiPing崔平,GeShan戈珊,ShenKaifuandChenYi陈毅.ZhangLiisaCommunistwhocommitsmurderwithoutblinkinganeyelidandtrieseverymeanstoseducewomen.ZhaoChuandCuiPingusedtobecomradesandintimatefriendswhowentthickandthintogether.Theirrelationshipusedtobesodeepthattheycouldrescueeachotherattheriskoftheirownlives.However,theirintimacyendsupwithmutualoppressionandpersecution.GeShanisafemaleCommunistwhocontractslungdiseaseandhassexualintercourseswithallkindsofmen.ShenKaifu,apowerfulandinfluentialmaleCommunist,2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.2ismean,cruel,hypocriticalandlustful.ChenYiisaccusedofembezzlingthefundforpurchasingmedicalapparatusandinstrumentstobuyfurovercoats,furbootsandfurgloves.Fromtheaboveanalysis,itcanbeseenthatZhangAilingchosetoself-translatethetextswhichconstructanerotic,debauched,impotentandprimitiveimageofChinesepeopleandaninhumaneandautocraticimageofChina,becauseonlytheOriental“Other”imageofChinacouldsatisfytheWesterners’

　　voyeuristicdesireandarousetheirinteresttoread.Herself-translatedtextsreflecttheWesterners’

　　stereotypedimpressionsofamystic,backward,depravedandviolentChinaaswellastheirbiasedanddisdainfulattitudestowardsChinesepoliticalsystemandChineseCommunistParty,whichindicatesself-orientalizationinherself-translationtextselection.

　　3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　Chapter3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproachesThischapterwillbedevotedtoanalyzingself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sself-translationpurposesandapproaches.Confrontedwithculturaldifferenceswhichwereunfamiliartothetargetreaders,ZhangAilinghadtodecidehowtopresentherhomeculture,withthefollowingchoices:literaltranslation,transposition,rewriting,deletion,additionandsoon.Whateverchoicesmadebyherwouldinevitablyrevealhertranslationpurposes.ZhangAilingmadelessdemandontheWesternreaders,translatedfromtheirstandpoint,gavecentralimportancetothem,conformedtothemainstreamideologyandtheirprejudice,andamplifiedthecorruptionandprimitivenessofChinesecultureexpectedbythemtoserveasafoiltothecivilizedanddemocraticWesternculture.

　　GivingcentralimportancetotheWesternreadersindicatesareader-basedorreader-centeredconcept,whichmeansthatatranslatorputsmuchemphasisonreaders’

　　aestheticexpectation,thinkingpatterns,ideology,experiencesofdailylife,beliefsandvalues.Thesefactorsarecalledhorizonofexpectation,whicharepreexistedthoughtsandconceptsinthereaders’minds.ZhangAilingtranslatedworkstotargetatEnglish-speakingreadersinHongKongandAmerica.MotivatedbythefinancialbenefitandherdreamofageniusinAmerica,sheboretheimpliedreaders’

　　horizonofexpectationinmindandgavecentralimportancetoit.ZhangAiling’sbeliefinthecentralimportanceoftheimpliedreaderswasarticulatedin“OnWritings”(论写作),namely“byclassifyingyourselfintoanaudiencegroup,wewillautomaticallyknowwhattheyneed.Givethemwhattheyneed”.⑩

　　Soitcanbeseenthatshealwaysattachedgreatimportancetotheimpliedreaders’expectationsandneeds.Asforwaystocatertotheaudience,ZhangAilingmentionedthat“onewayistosaywhatpeoplewantto1○say;theotheristosaywhatpeoplewanttohear”,1whichsuggeststhatsheputmuchemphasisonthetargetreaders’worldexperiences,ideology,aestheticinclination,habitualwayofthinking,expectations,valuesandbeliefs.Moreimportantly,shemadeagreatefforttomakeitherguidingprincipleinhertranslation.

　　31Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1InordertofitintheWesterners’

　　prototypeimageofChina,ZhangAilingadoptedthetranslationapproachofliteraltranslationtorepresentadepravedandprimitiveimageofChina,additiontomagnifythenegativeaspectsofChineseculture,andrewritingtomarginalizeandridiculeChinesepeople.AsforotheraspectsofculturaldifferencesbetweenChinaandtheWesterncountries,sheadoptedthetranslationapproachoftranspositiontoincreasereadabilityandconfirmtheWesternculturalvalue.Inaddition,inordertocatertotheWesterners’senseofculturalsuperiority,shedeletedthesentenceswhichchallengetheirauthority.3.1FittingintheWesterners’PrototypeImageofChina

　　Undertheseveretestof“language,publishingandmarket”,ZhangAilinghadtotranslateinconformitywiththeWesternreaders’imaginationaboutChina.SheacceptedthebinaryoppositionviewoftheEastandtheWest,viewedChineseculturefromtheperspectiveoftheWesternreaders,examinedculturaldifferencesbetweenChinaandtheWesttostrengthenculturalhegemonyofimperialism,anddisplayedChinainaccordancewiththeWesterners’prototypeimage,whichmanifestsherself-orientalization.

　　3.1.1RepresentingaDepravedandPrimitiveChinabyLiteralTranslationTargetingattheWesternreaders,ZhangAilingintroducedherhomeculturefromthestandpointoftheWesternreaders.InordertopandertotheWesterners’cognitionconcerningthedepravity,backwardness,abstrusenessandprimitivenessofChina,sheadoptedthetranslationtacticofliteraltranslationtorepresentChinaastheOriental“Other”toserveasafoiltotheculturalprestigeoftheWesternersintermsofcustoms,languagesandthinkingpatterns.“Literaltranslationtakesword-for-wordtranslationasitsstartingpoint,althoughbecauseofthenecessityofconformingtotargetlanguagegrammar,thefinaltargettextmayalsodisplaygroup-grouporclause-clauseequivalence”

　　(ShuttleworthandCowie95).Thefollowingexamplesareillustrative.Example1:Sourcetext:三十年来她戴着黄金的枷。她用那沉重的枷角劈杀了几人，没死的也送了半条命。(金锁记

　　146)32Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1Targettext:Forthirtyyearsnowshehadwornagoldencangue.Shehaduseditsheavyedgestochopdownseveralpeople,thosethatdidnotdiewerehalfkilled.(“TheGoldenCangue”190)

　　“黄金的枷”wasliterallyrenderedinto“agoldencangue”.CangueisaheavyboardorframewornaroundaneckasconfinementandpublichumiliationinChina.Ontheonehand,itstandsforthejewelrythatthefemaleprotagonistCh’i-Ch’iao曹七巧wears,whichimpliesthatshetradeshermarriageforfinancialbenefit;Ontheotherhand,sheisconfinedtothegoldencangue.Withtheevolutionofthestory,Ch’i-Ch’iao,whooriginallyisavictimofthefeudalsociety,becomesmaliciousandperverted.Inordertoplundermoney,shebecomespatheticanddetestable,torturingandravagingpeoplearoundher.Shetakesadvantageofeveryopportunitytosneerandscoffathersister-in-lawChi-shou芝寿.HerpoisonouswordsandvenomousbehaviormakeChi-shou“theclawsofaslaughteredchicken”,finallyherdeath(“TheGoldenCangue”

　　175).ZhangAilingusedstereotypingandbizarrecontenttoconformtotheOccidentalreaders’prototypeimpressionofChinesepeople.Byliteraltranslation,ZhangAilingrepresentedadull,insane,depravedandvulgarimageofaChinesewoman.Example2:

　　Sourcetext:你等着看，三茶六礼，红灯花轿，少一样你拉着老吴打她嘴巴。(怨女

　　304)Targettext:Youwaitandsee:thethreeteas,thesixgifts,theredlamps,thefloweredsedan-chair,alltheusualmarriagetrimmings,ifthere’sonethingmissing,justcollarOldWuandslapherface.(TheRougeoftheNorth20)Atfirstglance“thethreeteas”and“thesixgifts”mightmakenosensetotheWesternreaders.Uponcloseexamination,wewillfindthatZhangAilingintendedtoconformtotheOccidentals’expectationofChineselanguagewhichlackedgrammaticalstructureandwereincapableofaccuratethought.FromtheWesterners’

　　pointofview,comparedwiththerefinementandaccuracyofEnglishlanguage,Chineselanguagewas“aninferioroneandlefttheChineseinarudimentarystageoflinguisticdevelopment”(Johns55).TheinaccuracyandungrammaticalnatureofChineselanguageindicatedarelativelylowlevelofcultural33Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1attainment.SoitcanbeseenthatZhangAilingrepresentedtheprimitiveandequivocalnatureofChineselanguageimaginedbytheWesternreaderstoconfirmthattheWesterninvasionandsubjugationofChinaservedfordisseminatingcivilizationandenlightenment.Example3:

　　Sourcetext:夫妻不和，长白渐渐又往花街柳巷里走动。(金锁记

　　135)

　　Targettext:Sincethetwodidnotgetalong,Ch’ang-paiagainwentscrollingin“thestreetsofflowersandthelanesofwillows”.(“TheGoldenCangue”177)

　　“花街柳巷”wasliterallyrenderedinto“thestreetsofflowersandthelanesofwillows”,referringtothebrothel.AlthoughthetranslationisstrangetotheWesternreaders,itiseasyforthemtounderstandwhattheplayboyCh’ang-paiiscapableof.Byliteraltranslation,ZhangAilingrepresentedadepravedanddissipatedimageofChina.

　　Byliteraltranslation,ZhangAilingrepresentedChinatobelackofappealanddegenerateinconformitywiththeWesterners’

　　culturalcognitionandculturalexpectation.ThedegenerationandprimitivenessstrengthenedthesamerepresentationsthatChinawascomplicatedandirremediable.

　　3.1.2MagnifyingtheNegativeAspectsofChineseCulturebyAddition

　　Thetranslationtacticofadditionistoincludealotofredundantinformationoradditionallyexplanatoryphrasesinthetranslatedtexts.Assumingthatthetranslatedtextsarenotcomprehensibleunlesstheimplicitinformationismadeaccessible,self-orientalizedtranslatorstendtomakealotofexplicitexplanation.ThisisthesamecasewithZhangAiling.AssumingthattheWesternreaderswereignorantofChinesecultural-specificitems,sheactedasanativeinformanttodecodetheunfathomablemysteriesofChina.Sheadoptedthetranslationapproachofadditionalottoexplicitlyexplainthebizarreness,stagnationandviciousnessofChineseculture.SheprovidedtheadditionalliteraryandculturalbackgroundinthetranslatedEnglishtextstomagnifythenegativeaspectsofChineseculture,whichsuggeststhatshegaveprioritytotheWesternreaders.TheprioritygivenbyZhangAilingtotheWesternreadersactuallyimpliestheunequalculturalexchangebetweenChinaandtheWesterncountries.

　　Example1:34Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1Sourcetext:这不过是讨个吉利，希望新娘子将来也和她（金福太太）一样福气。(秧歌15)Targettext:Butitwasanecessaryceremony,expressiveofthewishthatthebridewouldliveaslongandhaveasmanysonsandgrandsonsastheoldwomancalledthe“ch’uenfut’ait’ai”onthisspecialoccasion-thecompletelyblessedlady.(TheRice-SproutSong11)Chinesecultureattachesgreatimportancetothebirthofboysforthebeliefthatthemaledescendantscanburnincenseandoffersacrificesinfrontoftheirancestors’graves,otherwisethedeadwillbecursedandtormentedintheperpetualstruggleagainsthungerandpoverty.Therefore,bytheaccidentofsexdifferentiations,boysbecomethetreasuresofthefamily;onthecontrary,girlsarethehorribleburdens,whoaredislikedandunwelcomesincetheirbirth.Inordertoproducetheneedymaleoffspring,Chinesemengetmarriedassoonaspossible.Chinesewomenarerequiredtoproducethemaleheirstocontinueafamilyline.Inabilitytoproduceamaledescendentjustifiesadivorce.Immortality,prosperityandabunchofsonsmeanhappinessforChinesepeople.IntheWesterners’uncannyimagination,Chinesepeoplearebarbarians,licentious,shamelessandfertile.AgrowingpopulationofChinesepeopleisnotonlyadisastertotheirowncountry,butalsoathreattotheWesterncountries.Boundbymoralityandsociety,civilizedpeoplehaveasmallerreproductivecapacity,however,lustfulanddebauchedChinesepeoplereproduceoffspringlikeanimals.ZhangAilingexplicitlyexplainedthemeaningof“金福太太”totheWesternreadersinserviceoftheracialprototype.

　　Example2:

　　Sourcetext:金锁、银锁、翡翠锁片，都是要把孩子锁在人世上。(怨女

　　330)Targettext:Thegiftsweregoldandsilverpadlockseachwithitsownchaintobewornaroundthebaby’sneckandflatpendantsofgreenjadeshapedlikepadlocks.Thebabymightescapeifnotlockedupandchaineddowntothislifeonearth.(TheRougeoftheNorth56)35Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1TheEnglishversionismuchlongerthantheChineseonetoexplainChinesepeople’sbeliefinsupernaturalthings.Chinesepeoplearesoignorantandfatuousthattheytrytokeepthelifeofachildbymakingthechildweargoldandsilverpadlocks.ThethoughtpatternsandideologicalstateofthewholeChinesenationareperceivedtobefraughtwithvariedstupidideasandsuperstition.TheprevalenceofsuperstitionsandfortunetellersmakeChinesepeoplelessrespectableandadmirable.ZhangAilingtookadvantageofthisbizarrenessandignorancebyaddingexplanatoryinformationinthetranslatedtext,whichstrengthenedtheOccidentals’

　　archetypalimageofthebenightedandbackwardChineseculture,andservedasafoiltorationalityofWesterncivilization.

　　Example3:Sourcetext:归在孝心上，好让他名正言顺地屈服。(怨女

　　310)Targettext:Puttingitallonfilialpiety,thehighestvirtue,soheneednotfeelashamedforgivingintoher.(TheRougeoftheNorth29)Theadditionallyexplanatoryphrase“thehighestvirtue”wasincludedintheEnglishversiontohighlightthatChinesepeoplegiveprioritytofilialpiety,whichisconsideredtobethebasisofChineseautocracy.Inthepatrimonialbureaucraticorder,sonsarerequiredtoobeytheirfathers;cabinetministersaresupposedtoyieldtotheemperors;ordinarypeopleareexpectedtocomplywiththegovernmentofficials.Lackoffilialpietyisperceivedasthesourceofallsocialvices,suchasvoidofsincerity,violationofproprieties,disobediencetosuperiorsandcowardiceonthebattlefield.AstotheWesterners,itisthefactthattheunparalleledreverencetoauthorityis“tyranny,oppressionandinjustice”

　　(Johns41).Governedbyobediencetofilialpiety,Chinesepeoplecanneverbeself-dependant,letalonetoownfreedom.IntheWesterners’imagination,Chinesepeopledesperatelystruggleagainstthedespotismandpoverty;however,theWesternersenjoygreatfreedomandprosperitybroughtbytheiradvancedcivilization.

　　Example4:Sourcetext:他直拱手

　　(怨女

　　320)Targettext:Hedidobeisancewithoutbotheringtogetup,righthandover

　　leftfist,jerkingthemupanddownrepeatedlywithlittlebows.(TheRougeoftheNorth43)36Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1Example5:

　　Sourcetext:“百顺——又往哪里跑？这点子工夫还惦记着玩！还不快上学去！”

　　(桂花蒸

　　阿小悲秋

　　168)Targettext:“ShinFa!Nowwhereareyourunningto?Onlyamomentleftandyourmindstillonplaying!Feed,youlittledevil,andgotoschool.”(“Shame,Amah!”93)WecanseeinExample4thattheEnglishversionwasgreatlyexpanded,whichhighlightsthatChinesepeoplepaymuchattentiontopoliteness.Chinesepeopleindistinctlyknowtheformalitiesandmaketheproprietiespartoftheirdailyroutine.Chinesepeoplebelievethattheuseofproprietiesiscriticaltomaintainsocialorder,andsmoothinterpersonalrelationships.Onthecontrary,theWesternershavemisunderstandingofanddisdainfulattitudestowardstheover-elaboratedformalities.TheyholdtheviewthatChinesepolitenessisnotgenuinekindnesssincerelyexpressed;“itisaritualoftechnicalitieswhich,likealltechnicalities,areimportant,notastheindicesofastateofmindorofheart,butasindividualpartsofacomplexwhole”

　　(Smith36).Thecomplexmassofrulesisbewildering,whichdoesnotindicateanyvirtuesinhumannatureandimpliesthatChinesepeoplearecomplicated.TheWesternersdisparageChinesepolitenessandevensuggestthatthesuperfluousrulesofcourtesyshouldbeabolished.

　　InExample5,thevulgarlanguage“feed,youlittledevil”wasadded.IntheWesterners’

　　view,Chinesepeoplehaveatendencytoshoutabusesinpublic.Iftheyquarrelwitheachother,filthylanguageandpoisonouswordscomeoutjustasthestreamfloodswithdirtythingsandcontinueswithoutanending.

　　ThecombinationoftheChineseetiquetteswithvulgarlanguageindicatesthatChinesepeoplearedeceitfulandcunning,whichbelittlesChinesecordialityandreliability.Byadoptionofthetranslationapproachofaddition,ZhangAilingmagnifiedthenegativeaspectsofChineseculture.

　　Example6:Sourcetext:“这三爷真不得了，黑饭白饭，三个门口。”她一面拿钥匙开厨门一面说。

　　(怨女

　　375)Targettext:“ThisThirdMasterisreallyinafix,withhisblackriceand3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1whitericethreehouseholds,”shesaidassheturnedawaytofindthekeyforthecabinet.Opiumisblackricebecauseitbecomesjustasmuchastaffoflife.(TheRougeoftheNorth118)TheimagethatChinesepeoplesmokeopiumwasprevalentintheOccidentals’collectiveimaginationaboutChina.Intheirimagination,mostChinesepeoplewereaddictedtothenarcotic,lyinginbedandsmokingopium.Opium-smokingwasassociatedwiththefrailtyinbodyandmind;opium-smokerswerelabeledbydefectsincharacterssuchaslethargy,depravity,indolenceandwickedness.TheWesternersnotonlyimaginedChinesepeopletobeopiumsmokers,butalsobelievedthat:EveryChinesepersonsmugglesfirearmsandammunition,putscorpseunderbedaftermurder,rapeswomenregardlessofageandengagesineverythingthatdeservesnothinglessthandismemberment.[...]Chinesepeopleactuallybecomethefoulest,themostdisgusting,themostcontemptibleandthemosttreacherous12animalsontwolegs.○

　　ZhangAilingintentionallyaddedthesentence“opiumisblackricebecauseitbecomesjustasmuchastaffoflife”togeneralizeChineseculture.Opium-smokingbecameoneofthemainimagesofChinesepeopleinconformitywiththeWesterners’aestheticconceptaboutChina,whichwasmisleadingandconfusing.Asisknowntoall,itwasBritainthatimportedopiumtoChinaforthesakeofwealth.Inordertojustifytheiropiumtrade,BritishpeoplerepresentedChinesepeopleascongenitalopiumsmokersandinsistedthattheyjustsuppliedwhatChinesepeopleneeded.Byadoptionofthetranslationtacticofaddition,ZhangAilinginfactrationalizedopiumtrade.Example7:Sourcetext:路上来了个老太婆，叫住了那小贩问他芝麻糖的价钱。(秧歌

　　7)Targettext:Apasser-by,anoldwomanwithboundfeet,stoppedthehawkertoaskthepriceofthecandy.(TheRice-SproutSong3)Foot-bindingforwomenwasacorruptandout-datedpracticeinChina.Althoughfoot-bindingwaspainfulandinconvenient,Chinesewomencrippledandboundtheirfeet3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1withtheaimofentertainingmalesaswellasacquiringextrabeautybroughtbyaswayingfigureonapairofpermanentlydeformedfeet.ChinesemalestotallyneglectedthefactthatthepersecutionofwrappingfeetwasphysicaltortureandpsychologicalhumiliationforChinesefemales.TheWesternmalesalsohadaspeciallikingfortheOrientallyprototypewomentypicalofreservedness,exquisiteness,mildnessandmysterybroughtbyapairof“three-inchgoldlotus”.Therefore,apairofsmallfeetwasanessentialcriterionformeasuringOrientalbeautyandacrucialfactorforexitingsexualdesires.Theaddedphrase“boundfeet”

　　madetheWesternreadersbeexposedtotheseeminglymoststrikingcharacteristicoftheChinesefemales,whichindicatesthatZhangAilingconsciouslyexploitedthearchetypalimagetopandertotheWesternreaders’horizonofaesthetics.

　　Example8:Sourcetext:“吃啦吗？”(赤地之恋

　　13)Targettext:“Haveyoueaten?”whichwastheusualphraseofgreeting,anytimeofday.(NakedEarth10)

　　Peoplegreeteachotherbysaying“Haveyoueaten?”inChina;bycontrast,thenormalwayofexpressingsalutationis“Howdoyoudo?”intheEnglish-speakingcountries.AstotheWesterners,“doingisthenormalconditionoftheAnglo-Saxon,aseatingisthenormalconditionofChinese”(Smith41).Chinesepeoplearefood-orientedandtheyvirtuallycaneateverythingsuchaspoisonousdogs,dirtyinnardsandrats;Chinaisastarvedcountry,filledwithtragedy,beggars,famine,illness,widespreadpovertyandskinnychildren.Theadditionalsentenceclause“whichwastheusualphraseofgreeting,anytimeofday”magnifiesChinesepeople’sobsessionwithfood.

　　Example9:

　　Sourcetext:那迷离的月光就从窗格子里照进来，照在地上，成为朦

　　胧的白玉古钱的图案。(赤地之恋

　　10)

　　Targettext:Moonlightcominginthroughthecarvedlatticedwindowfellonthestone-pavedfloorinlittlepatternslikeoldcoinsofwhitejade,round,withasquareholeinthemiddle.(NakedEarth8)

　　Example10:Sourcetext:怪不得是红白喜事两用的音乐。(怨女

　　355)3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1Targettext:Nowonderthesamemusicwasusedinboth“redandwhite

　　weddings”—

　　“whitewedding”beingeuphemismforfuneral.

　　(TheRougeoftheNorth91)IntheWesterners’

　　minds,Chinesecustomsarebizarre,uncivilizedanddegraded.AsPeterConnhasmentioned,“thecustomsthatChinesepeoplekeepaholeinthemiddleofacoin,theyusewhiteforcondolences,theycountagesinastrangeway,theyremoveshoesattheentranceofadoor,allbecomethelaughing-stockfortheWesternersandevidenceof13Chinesepeoplebeingweirdandamusing”.○ZhangAilingintentionallyexpandedthetargetedtexttoincludetheexplanatoryphrases“withasquareholeinthemiddle”and“whiteweddingbeingeuphemismforfuneral”tomagnifythebizarrenessofChinesecustoms.

　　ZhangAilingaddedalotofredundantinformationsuchasdislikeofdaughters,superstition,filialpiety,superfluousrulesofcourtesy,opium-smoking,foot-binding,obsessionwithfoodandbizarrecustomstomagnifythenegativeaspectsofChineseculture.AllthesemagnifydefectsinChinesecharacterssuchasirrational,depraved,ridiculous,deceitful,barbarousandfatuous.Therefore,ZhangAilingconstructedChinesepeopleasapopulationofdegeneratetypes,confirmedWesternculturalprestige,andrationalizedtheirconquestandcolonization,whichevidentlysuggestshertendencytoself-orientalization.

　　3.1.3RidiculingandMarginalizingChinesePeoplebyRewriting

　　ZhangAilingmanipulatedtheoriginalChineseversiontoridiculeandmarginalizeChinesepeople,whichcanbefoundinthetranslatedversionofthefiction“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”.IttellsastoryaboutonedaylifeofaChinesefemaleservantcalledAXiao阿小.ThenameAXiaowasrewrittenintoAhNée.NéeoriginatesfromFrench,whichisusedafterthenameofamarriedwomanandbeforeherfather’sfamilyname.Infact,itisnonameatall,whichimpliesthatChinesewomenhavelittlestatus.Intermsoflanguageandpsychology,theChinesecharacterissubmissiveandmarginal.Thetitleofthenovel“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”

　　wasalteredinto“Shame,Amah!”,

　　whichwasadaptedfromtheutterancemadebyMr.Schacht:“‘Shame,Amah!’

　　waggingafingerather,‘Neverhavethenumbersright’”(95).ThefactthatAhNéecouldnotimparttheoriginalinformationaccuratelysuggeststhatChinesepeopleareintellectualmuddled.IntheWesterners’minds,“accuracyisabhorrenttotheOrientalmind.4Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.2Wantofaccuracy,whicheasilydegeneratesintountruthfulness,isinfactthemaincharacteristicoftheOrientalmind”(Said38).Disregardofaccuracyis“anannoyance”totheWesterners,whoattachgreatimportancetoexactnessandprecision(Smith49).TheoriginaltitleconveystheimageofaChinesemaidinasuffocatingautumn.However,therewrittentitlenotonlyblotsouttheimagerybutalsoexpressesthatZhangAilingridiculedChinesepeopleinthetoneoftheWesterners.

　　ZhangAilingmanipulatednotonlytranslationofthetitle,butalsoofthedetailstoconformtotheWesterners’prototypeimageofChinesepeople.Inthesourcetext,AhNée’shusbandandsonareinShanghai.However,inthetargetEnglishtextthedetailswererewritten.TheChinesefemaleAhNéedelineatedin“Shame,Amah!”extricatesherselffromtheshacklesoffeudalproprietiesandunscrupulouslyhasaloverinShanghaidespitethefactthatherhusbandlaborsinAustralia.ByZhangAiling’srewriting,anindustriousandkind-heartedChinesewomanwasalteredtobeshrewd,dissipatedanddishonorableinconformitywiththeOccidentals’utopianfantasiesabouttheOrientalfemales.AstotheWesterners,theOrientalfemalesarecloselyassociatedwithlicentiouspleasuresandexoticflavors.TheyevenholdtheviewthatChinesewomencouldaccomplishnothingbesideshavingsex.ThemisrepresentationofthefaithlessandlicentiousChinesewomanimagebyZhangAilinginherself-translatedversionconsolidatestheWesterners’preexistednotionsofChinesewomen.Inproducingthearchetype,translationisintertwinedwithculturalhegemonyandtranslators’respectfulordisdainfulattitudestowardsculturaldifferences.TheChinesefemaleimageswhichpreexistintheOccidentals’

　　mindsareintimatelyassociatedwiththemarginalizedandinferiorstatusofChineseculture.Inotherwords,Chinesewomenimagesareperceivedtobetypicalmanifestationsofdepraved,passive,ignorant,humbleandbackwardqualitiesinChineseculture.Infact,theconstructionofChinesewomenimagesdisclosetheWesterners’hiddenpurposeofjustifyingculturalinfiltrationandculturalinvasioninflicteduponChinabytheWesterncountries.3.2ConfirmingUniversalityoftheWesternCulturebyTransposition

　　Translationinvolvesdealingwithculturaldifferences,namelywhethertomanifestortocoverupthem.ZhangAilingchosetodisplayorevenmagnifythenegativeaspectsof41Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.2Chineseculture.AsfortheotheraspectsofculturaldifferencesbetweenChinaandtheWesterncountries,sheputmuchemphasisontheWesternreaders,andusedthereceivingaudience’shabitualwayofexpressiontopresenttheoriginalcontentwiththepurposeofincreasingreadability.However,theuniquevalueofChineseculturecouldbeobliterated.TheWesternreadersmistakenlybelievethattheirthinkingpatterns,valuesystemsandbeliefsareuniversal,andexperienceasenseofidentificationwiththeirownculturefromexaminingthecultural“Other”.ZhangAilingusedthetranslationmethodoftranspositiontoconfirmuniversalityoftheWesternculture.Transpositionis“ageneraltermusedbyHervey&HigginstodescribethevariousdegreesofdeparturefromliteraltranslationthatonemayresorttointheprocessoftransferringthecontentsofaSTintothecontextofatargetculture”(ShuttleworthandCowie49).Therefore,transpositionisanalternativemethodtotranslate,whichsuggeststranslators’

　　allegiancetothetargetcultureandtheireffortstosatisfytheimpliedreaderswithstorieswhichdemandaminimumreadingexertion.InZhangAiling’scase,theapplicationofthistranslationmethodremovedtheobstaclesoftheWesternreaders’understandingbroughtbyculturaldifferences.However,theculturalconnotationsandaestheticmeaningcouldbelost;worsestill,theoriginalculturalimagerycouldbedistorted,andtheWesterners’beliefsandvaluesystemcouldbeconfirmedandconsolidated.

　　Example1:Sourcetext:酱黄大水缸上面描出淡黄龙。(桂花蒸

　　阿小悲秋

　　168)Targettext:Thebigbrownwaterjarembossedwithpaleyellowdragons.(“Shame,Amah!”93)InChineseculture,“龙”isakindofmiraculousanimalandasymbolofmagnificence,nobilityandgracefulness.Astoemperors,“龙”standsforunconquerablepowerandimperialauthority;theyareusedtoregardingthemselvesas“龙”;andtheirutensilsareusuallydecoratedwith“龙”.Astoordinarypeople,itisauspiciousandhonorable.Chinesepeopletakegreatdelightinencounterswith“龙”.Forthousandsofyears,“龙”

　　hasactuallypenetratedintoeveryaspectofChinesesociety,andbecomethecrystallizationandaccumulationofChineseculture.ForeverydescendantofYanDiandHuangDi,“龙”isasymbol,astateofmindandadeepattachmentbetweenfleshandblood.Titlessuchasthe42

篇三：自我东方化例子

　　自我评价示例内容简介

　　辅导功课。传授解题技巧与方法。有丰富的辅导经验。，来自中国矿业大学某某

　　专业，学习成绩优异，踏实勤奋，在某某年以高于重点线某某分的优异成绩被某某录取，并获得优秀新生奖金。平时积极向上，勤于钻研。曾获得优秀团干部荣誉称号。在学校自强自立，长期从事家教兼职工作，被学校评为“勤工助学服务之星”。第6

篇四：自我东方化例子

　　上司与下属相处的东方大智慧

　　中国古圣人最深奥的聪慧：天一聪慧，一直推崇的确实是天人合一。

　　运用在为人处世方面，确实是强调“知天道”、“顺天道”，“行人事”。

　　那么在具体的工作中，如何得以体现呢？

　　来看个小例子：

　　李明工作专门杰出，入职后不久就升到了市场部主管，经理一开始专门关照李明，李明也专门感激经理，但随着李明业绩的突飞猛涨，李明感受到经理开始有意无意的疏远他，一些重要的项目也不再委派他参加。

　　一开始李明认为只是分工不同，依旧卖力工作。但是越卖力，经理对他越冷淡，甚至处处提防他。

　　终于，李明完全明白了，原先经理担忧李明有“野心”，想篡权。。。

　　本案例中，不管上司依旧下属，其所作所为，只要顺应天道，自会祥运相随；

　　否则，则处处碰壁，自讨苦吃，甚至自取灭亡。

　　那如何顺应天道呢？

　　俗语道：观念决定思维，思维决定一切。因此，培养一个好的观念和思维模式，就能够把握自己的命运。

　　“天一谋事环”（P4思维适应）

　　知存亡门户达人心理筹策始终

　　“天一谋事环”（P4思维适应，原名成功做事环）确实是如此一个专门完美的思维模式，融合了东方整体思维（重林轻木）和西方分析思维（重木轻林）的长处，既重林，又重木。

　　“天一谋事环”所涉及的观念、法则、技法，多数来源于“天一聪慧”：鬼谷子、孙子、“36计”三者的海量道术，及周易象数思维、诗经“类比”手法等东方聪慧；少量来源于西方现代心理学。

　　如果把握了“天一谋事环”的思维模式适应，就能在日常工作生活中，采纳“天一聪慧”为人处事，轻松且简单的看清他人难以测知的以后结果，知命造运，趋吉避凶，把握自己的命运，获得各方力量的支持。

　　下面，思源就从“天一谋事环”的角度，来解析一下那个案例（上司和下属两个方面）。

　　◆关于上司：

　　上司想顺应天道，则第一要了解明确下属的关键心理，无非分下面几种情形：

　　（1）循规蹈矩、踏踏实实；（2）虚伪奸诈、不则手段；

　　2、被动状况：不思进取，安于现状，给多少责任待遇，就做多少事，又细分两种：

　　（1）能稳固完成本职工作的；（2）完成本职工作，时好时坏。

　　上述四种情形，不是简单的选择ABC，因为事物是一直进展变化中，当事人的心态变化也是专门微妙的，有时候甚至当事人本人，也未必能真正了解自己的真实方法，因此关键心理的把握，要在动态之中，见微知类，从当事人的日常行为之中，揣摩他的心理，反复验证，最终予以确定。

　　“天一聪慧”在知心（Probe）的思维环节，确定对象关键心理时，强调三个步骤：

　　1.量权（因实）：按照客观情形来判定其硬件条件：测度大小、运算多少、判定有无、衡量强弱。

　　2.揣情（因情）：揣度、琢磨对象的内心世界。

　　3.摩意（因宜）：刺激对象内心，按照其外在反应来验证揣情是否正确。

　　具体的运用，思源将在下面几个咨询题的解答中，简单阐述一下：

　　1、上司如何洞悉下属的“野心”？

　　关于洞悉下属的“野心”，第一要量权：

　　按照各方面客观情形，分析判定下属是否具有产生“野心”的“土壤”条件。

　　例如：在企业的个人价值体现、能力口碑等方面，是否已超过、或存在超过的潜在趋势等KPI指标。

　　如果不具备，即使下属心比天高，也不必在意，无足虑。

　　如果具备，那就要揣情了。“天一聪慧”里，古圣人关于揣情，有三种常见方法：

　　2.旁敲侧击：遇到意志坚强，不为喜怒所动的人，就从其平常靠近的人口中，了解心思所在。

　　3.察言观色：长期观看人的外部表现（言行、表情、态度、喜好等），就可明白他的内心实情。

　　这三种方法各有优劣，例如：“把握时机”方法，最能准确测出真实情形，但时机可遇难求，需要耐心等待。而“察言观色”方法，则对使用者能力要求较高，没有一定的分析、观看判定明白得能力，专门容易产生误判。

　　因此，上述三种方法，可按照实际情形，量身裁衣，综合运用。

　　如果揣情有“野心”，那就需要“摩意”来确认。

　　“天一聪慧”里，古圣人们有“摩意十法”、“钓情七法”等专门多手法来确定揣情的正确与否。

　　齐国时的田婴，确实是一个钓情高手。

　　虽非其事，见微知类。

　　从田婴的案例，专门多智者上司应该都会从中领会：如何去“摩意”下属的“野心”了吧。

　　2、如何应对“篡权者”？

　　“天一聪慧”里，古圣人关于上司治理下属，有五种常见的应对方法：

　　1.阳德决之：对情况能成功、道理专门充分的人事，用公布颂扬的方式处置。

　　2.阴贼决之：对隐瞒实情、言行虚伪的人事，用背地调查处置的方式处置

　　3.信诚决之：对明白道理、品性正直的人事，用真诚信实的方式处置。

　　4.蔽匿决之：对小奸小坏，小错小祸的人事，用隐藏掩饰的方式处置。

　　5.平素决之：对循规蹈矩、老老实实的人事，用通常采纳的方式处置。

　　因此，针对“篡权者”的类型，可按照五种情形，来选择单独或综合对应处置。

　　类如：一个小奸小坏之人，想采取一些卑劣手段来干掉他人，取而代之的，那就要采取“蔽匿决之”的手法：促使其在采取行动时，犹疑不决，难以决断，一直处于只是“有贼心，没贼胆”的心理状态，因而也就可不能造成实质性的危险损害。

　　一个不良上司因为谋私利，想干掉刚正不阿的下属，换自己人来捞油水。结果被下属发觉，因此，下属采取了虚虚实实的手法，让不良上司误认为那个下属有总部大老总后台撑腰，因此始终不敢下手，最终因为得不到好处，那个不良上司只能被迫悻悻辞职而去。。。

　　那个故事的角色尽管正好相反（上司想干掉下属），事实上道理是相通的，而且上司拥有更多资源，因而采取策略时更便利，也更容易获得成功。

　　3.如何建立职业安全感？

　　“天一聪慧”里对治理者要求具备的差不多素养能力有两个：

　　１.以道御术：用古圣人们的道（法则）、术（技巧）来治理外物（外在的人、事、物）。

　　２.内养外神：用自己的内在精神力量，来治理外物。

　　这两种治理外物的能力，一内一外、一静一动，从内到外全方位的关心治理者，来应对纷杂多样的外部世界事物变化。参悟修炼到家了，自然就能够顺应天道，得道多助、具备足够的职业“安全感”。

　　从“谋事在人、成事在天”，提升到“谋事在天、祥运相随”的境域。

　　◆关于下属：

　　下属想顺应天道，则第一要了解明确上司的关键心理，分下面几种情形：

　　1、主动状况：上司想要连续向上进展或离职另谋高就的，故存在虚位以待的机会，又细分两种：

　　（1）想培养下属接替自己；（1）不想培养下属接替自己；

　　2、被动状况：上司向上进展无望，又不想离职另谋高就，故预备在企业干到退休的，又细分两种：

　　（1）一直想呆在本部门不想改变的；（2）不介意到被平调到其他部门。

　　下属一旦明确了自己上司的关键心理，那日常工作与上司相处，自然游刃有余、进退自如了。

　　如何与上司相处？思源将从下面的咨询答来解析：

　　1、如何恰到好处地表现“上进心”？

　　针对上司的上述关键心理：

　　第一种情形时，下属能够表现出“上进心”，专门是遇到想培养下属的上司，程度可强烈些。

　　第二种情形时，如果下属有“上进心”，则会被上司视为野心，不建议显露，建议离职另谋高就。

　　处于第一种情形时，“上进心”表现程度的把握，确实专门有讲究，这牵涉到如何与上司相处的艺术。

　　2、“有上进心”的下属，如何与上司相处？

　　“天一聪慧”里，有专门多与上司相处的重要道、术。

　　古圣人那些年代，如何与上司相处不是艺术，而是救命法则。

　　游讲君主（上司）的十种危险情形：

　　1.不是有意泄密，而是无意讲中对象心中隐密，危险！

　　2.明确指出对象过失，并批判品论，危险！

　　3.新进时，不要把才华全部奉献出来，否则，成功了，君王会不记得功劳而不奖赏，不能用甚至失败了，则会遭到对象怀疑导致危险！

　　4.猜中并讲出对象独到计策，危险！

　　5.对象言行表里不一，讲出其内心所想之事，危险！

　　6.将就对象做其坚决不愿做的事，阻止其做不愿罢手的事，危险！

　　7.在对象面前议论能者，会怀疑你挑拨离间；在对象面前议论小人物，会怀疑你玩弄权术。

　　8.在对象面前议论宠臣，会怀疑你想巴结权势；在对象面前议论所憎之人，会怀疑你在试探虚实

　　9.讲的少，会认为没有知识而看不起；讲得多，会认为在卖弄而轻视。

　　10.顺着对象思路讲，会认为你胆小怕事，不敢发表看法；面面俱到，讲话无限制，会认为傲慢无教养。

　　上面十种情形，告诉了你在与上司相处时，哪些行为不可采取。否则，即使你具有强烈的上进心，悲天

　　悯人，预备鞠躬尽瘁，死而后已，但一旦触动了上司的“逆鳞”，逆天道而行，注定最终难逃前功尽弃的命运。

　　3、“与上司相处难”，有哪些化解的技巧？

　　“天一聪慧”里，针对解决“与上司相处难”，提出了三种应对技法：

　　１．“揵而内和”技法，诸如：

　　◆对象炫耀自己实力，不要指出是难以办到。

　　◆对象显示自己勇敢，不要拿其强劲对手激怒他。

　　◆对象自以为计策高超，不要拿往常过失使其难堪。

　　◆想告诉危害对象的情况，就要指出这件事差不多引起舆论不满，而且暗示对其自身有害。

　　２．“揵而反之”技法，诸如：

　　◆对象有崇高愿望，但事实无法实现，指出不可行之处，颂扬其不做的好处。

　　◆对象想炫耀才能，就举出有关事例，多加赞扬，使其自己得到启发，并假装不知他

　　３．“揵而飞之”技法，诸如：

　　◆赞扬与对象有同样品行的人，不露赞扬的痕迹。

　　◆巧妙指出与对象同样污点的人，以免损害对象自尊心。

　　◆巧妙评论与对象同样的过失行为，以免对象认为在嘲笑自己。

　　◆谋划与对象同样谋划的其他情况，既参与了谋划，又幸免了炫耀的嫌疑。

　　如果下属能够把握上述技法，言行差不多就能够做到顺天道了。

　　因此，在与上司相处的过程中：

　　只要“上进没有反感，言辞没有抵触”，就差不多没有什么障碍了。

　　同时，因实、因情、因宜的火候把握也专门关键，有时候，同样一件事，对象立场不同，结论也会不同：

　　例如：

　　墙坏了，亲小孩和邻居都讲要赶忙修，不然就会有贼来光临。

　　结果贼确实来了。

　　因此，这家主人往往会赞扬亲小孩，而怀疑邻居。。。

　　小结：

　　“天一聪慧”里，圣人们针对上司与下属的关系，列出了六种情形：

　　１.远而亲：尽管距离远却一直有靠近感，因为两人德行一致。

　　２.近而疏：尽管距离近却一直有疏远感，因为两人志向不合。

　　司心意。

　　人策略。

　　施不适用。

　　只待施用。

　　中，３.就之不用：来上门应聘，却不用，或不重用，因为不合上４.去之反求：下属离职，反而想挽留召回，因为符合上司用５．日进前而不御：对周围的人不重用，因为下属的技能措６．遥闻声而相思：对远方的人慕名相求，因为其才华相符，上述六种情形，每个人都可能遇到过，或正处于某种情形之如何把握？如何把握自己的命运？

　　就看每个人的所作所为，是否符合天道了。

　　只要能参透古圣人们的“天一聪慧”，相信一定能够有助于你！

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